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SECULARIZATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

Changes in Focus

Education had always been linked with religion in Western culture. After World War II, however, educators became more interested in secular issues and concerned themselves with teaching democracy and other sociological ideas. Secularization became widespread, although there was much protest from religious communities. The debate over the role of religion in American education was long-standing, and it was made greater by the impact of the war. Although many American universities have their roots in a particular religious institution, most had become secular by the twentieth century. Curricula in American public schools up through the 1920s usually included Bible study and religious instructional practices that drew objections from progressives. After the war progressives pointed to the success of Fascist indoctrination (such as the Hitler Youth) and the Holocaust to argue that religious instruction was doctrinaire and intolerant. Traditionalists argued the opposite: to them, totalitarianism and other social ills were in part related to secular education. Eleanor Roosevelt attacked progressive education in February 1947, saying, "All over this country people are troubled … at the way delinquency extends down to even small children. I sometimes wonder if what is commonly called progressive education, in the effort to make children enjoy school and develop their individual personalities, has not done away with some of the essential disciplines. These disciplines made education in the old days…seem somewhat harsh at times, but even children came to recognize that…they were valuable." Roman Catholic educators in particular called for a return to religious instruction and government support for private education.

McCollum and Religious Instruction

In 1945 the question of whether religion should be taught in public schools was argued before the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of McCollum v. Board of Education. Vashti McCollum, a mother who felt that her son was embarrassed and ostracized because she refused to allow him to attend his school's religious classes, sued the school board of Champaign, Illinois, to have all religious training in the schools shut down. She argued three points: that the classes wasted taxpayers' money, that the classes discriminated against minority religious faiths, and that the classes were an unconstitutional mix of church and state.

Presentation of Testimony by Different Beliefs

In the lower courts McCollum's lawyer produced several representatives of different faiths, including a Presbyterian, a Methodist, a Lutheran, a Jehovah's Witness, a Quaker, a fundamentalist Protestant, and a Christian Scientist to testify that the school system's classes of religious teaching were discriminatory; however, several of the witnesses claimed the opposite. The school board countered that their instruction was ecumenical and that the issue at stake was religious discrimination. The board called McCollum's father, Arthur C. Cromwell, president of the Rochester (New York) Society of Free Thinkers. He had been responsible for the abolishment of religious training in three upstate New York towns. Cromwell caused a stir by announcing that he would only swear to "affirm the truth," as he was opposed to "swearing by God." He then testified that he felt the story of Adam and Eve was fictitious, that the Flood was scientifically impossible, and that the Resurrection was physically impossible. Further, he declared himself proud to be an atheist. Terry McCollum, Vashti's son and the boy whose education was in question, was then called to the stand. After "affirming to tell the truth" he was prodded to state that he was an atheist and that, after one visit to Sunday school, he never returned because he felt funny. He then explained his definition of atheism and ended his testimony by saying atheism was fun in some ways, but in others it was not. Vashti McCollum was then called. Under questioning she noted, "I have not accepted belief in God myself, but I have never consciously ridiculed religion." She then noted that she had simply gone to court because she felt that the church and the state must be separate. The case was decided in her favor.

Separation of Church and State Upheld

The school board's appeals reached the Supreme Court in 1948, and the court held that religious instruction or activity in public-school facilities was unconstitutional. The exclusion of religious classes was naturally disturbing to those who historically believed religion and education went hand in hand. However, to others it was a welcome relief to find more school time spent on technical, scientific, or liberal arts topics. Secularization was encouraged by the increased interest in sciences following World War II. Further, teachers now tended to encourage students to take an interest in political and economic trends in the hope that an increased awareness of international affairs would help to avoid warfare in the future. While religious discussions were limited, there was an interest in creating ethically responsible citizens; the notion that scientists must not only know how to make an hydrogen bomb but must also know how to prevent the technology behind it from destroying the world became a rallying cry at universities. The educational shift was not simply toward technical training; it also reflected a greater interest in the humanities and the liberal arts.