Caribbean Percussion Traditions in Miami

Stephen Stuempfle has been folklife program coordinator at the Historical Museum of Southern Florida since 1995 and is the author of The Steelband Movement: The Forging of a National Art in Trinidad and Tobago (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995). He also served as curator for the exhibitions "Caribbean Percussion Traditions in Miami" (1997) and "Florida Folklife: Traditional Arts in Contemporary Communities" (1998).

At the southeastern edge of the United States, Miami has emerged as a major gateway to the Caribbean. In the continuous flow of people between Miami and Caribbean nations, musical traditions have become particularly important in the construction of cultural roots, linkages, and identities. Miami-based mass media highlights popular music styles such as salsa, merengue, reggae, and konpa. Meanwhile, in more secluded settings and at special festive occasions in the city's Caribbean neighborhoods, there are a variety of grassroots musical genres that are performed exclusively or primarily with percussion instruments. This essay focuses on percussive forms in Miami's Cuban, Haitian, and Bahamian communities. However, other Caribbean percussion traditions also exist in the city, including Puerto Rican bombas and plenas, music/dance genres performed in festivals and concerts; Jamaican-based Rastafari drumming, which accompanies singing at religious events; Trinidadian steel bands at parties, concerts and the annual Carnival; and Indo-Trinidadian tassa drumming at Hindu weddings and festivals.

CUBAN PERCUSSION

Though there were Cubans living in Miami during the first half of the twentieth century, large-scale migration began after the Cuban Revolution in 1959. Cubans constitute by far the largest Caribbean group in the region. (As of the late 1990s, close to 30 percent of Dade County's population of roughly 2 million was of Cuban descent.) Though a relatively small portion of this population has close contact with percussion traditions, these traditions carry cultural significance for many people. Cuban percussion exists in both sacred and secular forms. Sacred percussion is integral to the Orisha (Santeria) and Palo religions, while the secular tradition comprises various genres of rumba.

ORISHA RELIGION AND PERCUSSION

Orisha worship is the traditional religion of the Yorubas, one of the major ethnic groups of what is now the African nation-state of Nigeria. Yorubas brought their religion to Cuba and other parts of the Americas, primarily during the nineteenth century. With the exodus of Cubans to the United States, the Orisha religion became established in Miami, New York, and other cities, where it has attracted additional followers of other ethnic backgrounds. The religion revolves around efforts by devotees to harmonize their everyday life with the spiritual world.

Though there is an omnipotent Supreme Being, Olodumare, rituals are largely devoted to a pantheon of intermediary deities known as orishas. Devotees belong to ilés or houses, which function as extended spiritual families. Percussion is a crucial component of Orisha worship in that it is a vehicle through which devotees communicate with the divine. For the most important ceremonies, an ensemble of three double-headed batá drums is employed. For ceremonies with less rigorous requirements, either a güiro or a bembé ensemble can be used. The güiro ensemble typically consists of three güiros or shekerés (different-sized gourd rattles that are strung with beads or seeds), a conga drum, and a guataca (a hoe blade) or cowbell that is struck to provide a basic pulse or timeline. The bembé ensemble generally includes three conga drums, a shekeré, and a guataca. All three types of ensembles accompany call-and-response singing in which the orishas are praised and invited to descend on their devotees.

BATÁ DRUMS

A batá ensemble consists of an iyá (the large mother drum), a mid-sized itótele, and a smaller okónkolo. Batá drums are owned by Shangó, the powerful orisha of thunder and justice. New sets of batá drums are periodically made in Miami by carving three logs (often from almond or mahogany trees) into the traditional hourglass shapes, hollowing out their interiors, and covering their ends with animal skins (such as goat or cowhide).

Before new drums can be played at important ceremonies, they must be consecrated. During this multipart ritual, priests invest them with a spiritual entity called Aña and give them a name and a voice. At present, there are at least ten sets of consecrated drums (batá de jundamento) in Miami. The players of batá de fundamento belong to a special spiritual fraternity that is open only to heterosexual men. Entry into the fraternity requires both an initiation and the learning of a range of traditional rhythms, while membership entails following a strict religious code. Among the leading batá drummers in Miami at present are Ezequiel Torres, Juan Raymat, and Lazaro Alfonso.

ORISHA CEREMONIES

An Orisha ceremony in which batá de fundamento are played is often referred to as a toque. Toques, which generally take place in a devotee's house, may be held in response to the advice of an orisha, to thank an orisha for a blessing, to celebrate one's anniversary of initiation into the Orisha priesthood, or simply to honor an orisha.

When the batá drums are brought to the house around noon on the day of the ceremony, they are taken to a special throne (altar) room, where they are dressed in bantés (ritual garments) in preparation for the initial part of the ceremony, known as the oru igbodù. The oru igbodù is a drummed invocation of the orishas that includes no singing. Performers sit in front of the throne, with their drums resting horizontally on their knees, and play specific rhythms for each of the orishas in hierarchical order, beginning with Elegguá, the messenger deity of the crossroads. Within the dense polyrhythmic framework for each orisha, the lead iyá drum plays the most complex rhythms, the itótele responds to it and plays variations, while the okónkolo serves as a timekeeper by sounding regular rhythms.

The second part of the ceremony generally takes place in the living room and may attract over 100 people. The batá drums provide accompaniment for an apuón, a man or woman who leads the singing of Yoruban songs to the orishas and often shakes a small rattle called an acheré. The assembled devotees sing phrases in response to the apuón while dancing in front of the drums. Eventually, one or more orishas usually descends and enters the bodies of the devotees, an experience that is marked by intensified singing, drumming, and dancing. The ceremony comes to a close at sunset, following a song for Olukùn, a deity of the ocean.

PALO RELIGION AND MUSIC

The Cuban Palo religion is derived primarily from the spiritual beliefs and practices of the Kongo people of the western part of Central Africa. Practitioners are called paleros or stick handlers, in reference to their ability to use sticks to manipulate the spiritual forces of the forest. Paleros believe in Sambi (the Supreme Being), the mpungus (deities of nature), and the nfumbe (spirits of the dead).

In Miami ceremonies are typically held in a small building in a palero's backyard. These rituals center around an nkisi, a black iron pot that holds a variety of substances and functions as a magical microcosm of the natural world. The mpungus and nfumbe enjoy music. In order to communicate with these powers, paleros compose praise songs that include a mix of Spanish and special ritual words. Call-and-response singing is generally accompanied by one or more conga drums and a guataca. After the singing and drumming begin, paleros dance or gather around the area in front of the nkisi. As the ceremony progresses, they may be possessed by deities or spirits. These spiritual powers are often taunted with puyas, provocative adlib remarks that encourage possession. Paleros typically use puyas to taunt each other as well. The poetic skill displayed in these verbal confrontations and in the composition of songs is much appreciated by those who attend Palo ceremonies.

RUMBA

The term "rumba" refers to a form of music and dance that has Kongo roots and was developed during the nineteenth century by workers in Cuba, particularly in urban areas. At present, there are three major genres: the guaguancó, yambü, and Colombia. The guaguancó is a playful couple dance in which the man attempts to conquer the woman through such movements as the vacunao (pelvic thrust), while she, in turn, tries to protect herself. The yambü is a slower, more seductive couple dance. In contrast to these forms is the Colombia, a solo male dance that involves fast-paced displays of virtuosity and elaborate responses to the rhythms of the accompanying drums.

The standard rumba ensemble consists of three conga drums: the lower pitched tumbadora, the middle range segundo, and the higher pitched quinto. In performances, the tumbadora and segundo play repetitive patterns that serve as a foundation for the improvisations of the quinto. Meanwhile, a timeline is sounded by claves (two wooden sticks struck together) and the guagua (a piece of bamboo struck with two sticks). Cajones (wooden boxes) are typically substituted for congas when playing the yambù and are sometimes employed for the other rumba genres as well. All three forms of rumba feature a lead singer and a chorus, though their musical structures differ. The guaguancó, for example, includes a wordless solo as an introduction, a second section of verses, and a final section of call-and-response singing.

Rumba Settings

In Cuba, rumba is traditionally associated with street and courtyard settings. Though rumbas are still occasionally performed outdoors in Miami, it is now more common to hear them indoors. Drummers of Cuban, Puerto Rican, and other backgrounds periodically gather in each other's homes for long afternoons of improvisational playing. These sessions generally do not include dancing. However, dancing is often featured in staged shows presented by Afro-Cuban ensembles such as Ifé-Ilé, in nightclubs and concert halls, and at festivals and educational institutions. These ensembles typically perform Orisha music and dance in addition to rumbas.

HAITIAN PERCUSSION

Haitians have been settling in substantial numbers in the Miami area since the late 1970s. By the late 1990s, the community numbered at least 80,000. Some members participate in Vodou, a religion that lies at the heart of Haitian percussion in Miami. In the course of its development in Haiti, Vodou has been shaped by a multiplicity of sources, including beliefs and practices associated with the Fon people (from presentday Benin), the Yoruba, and the Kongo as well as elements of Christianity. Though serviteurs (Vodou practitioners) believe in Gran Mét (the Supreme Being), the religion is focused on the Iwa, spiritual entities that represent aspects of nature and the human personality. The Iwa are divided into several nations, the two main groupings of which are Rada and Petwo. The Rada (which of West African derivation) are more benevolent, while the Petwo (which stem from the Kongo and the experience of Haitian slavery) tend to be more aggressive.

VODOU PERCUSSION

Drums and other percussion instruments are central to Vodou ceremonies in that they facilitate

communication with the Iwa. Different nations of Iwa are associated with particular rhythms, while individual Iwa have their own songs. The basic division between Rada and Petwo is reflected in drum ensembles. Rada drums are covered with cowhide that is attached with wooden pegs and tightened with rope wrapped around the pegs. The ensemble consists of three drums: a manman, segon, and kata (also called a boula). The large manman serves as the lead drum and is played with one bagét (stick) and one hand. The mid-sized segon, which responds to the manman, is played with one bagét and one hand (or both hands). Two bagéts are used to strike the small kata to provide a steady rhythm.

Petwo drums (and the closely related Kongo drums) have goatskin covers that are attached by a loop of rubber and a system of cords. As in the case of the Rada drums, when three different sizes are used in Miami, they are referred to as manman, segon, and kata. The kata is played with two bagéts, while the manman and the segon are played exclusively by hand.

VODOU CEREMONIES

In Miami, nighttime ceremonies to honor the Iwa generally are held in the houses of manbos (priestesses) or oungans (priests), though large halls are sometimes rented for major feasts. Depending on the ceremony, Rada or Petwo/Kongo drums are employed. However, due to a shortage of Vodou drums in Miami, Cuban congas and other types of drums are often used as well. Drums are almost always played by men. A basic time-line for the drums is provided by an ogan, a piece of iron played with a metal striker, or a bottle struck with a spoon. Manbos and/or oungans that are present each have a consecrated ason, a small calabash that is covered with a mesh of beads and has a bell attached to its handle. Asons are shaken in time with the underlying drum rhythm. In addition, they are used to start and stop the drummers and to direct other aspects of a ceremony. For some ceremonies, a maraca-like rattle known as a tcha-tcha is also employed.

All of these percussion instruments accompany call-and-response songs for the lwa, which consist of Haitian Kreyòl and ritual words. Generally, manbos or oungans take turns serving as the ounjenikon (lead singer), while others present provide a chorus. Once the drumming starts, the serviteurs begin to dance. In the course of the ceremony, a variety of rhythms are played for the lwa, who eventually manifest themselves in their serviteurs.

FOLKLORIC TROUPES AND MISIK RASIN

Vodou music and other genres of Haitian traditional music are often incorporated in the staged performances of community based folkloric troupes such as Sosyete Koukouy. In addition, local misik rasin (roots music) bands such as Ayabonmbe combine traditional percussion instruments with electric guitars and keyboards. The performances of folkloric troupes and rasin bands comment on the Haitian experience both in the homeland and in Miami. Some of the percussionists in these groups also play at Vodou ceremonies. Among Miami's best-known master drummers are Cathelius "Ton Ton" Laguerre, Joseph "Ti Rouj" Senatus, and Miguel Casimir.

BAHAMIAN PERCUSSION

Bahamians have been settling in the Miami area since the late nineteenth century. As of the late 1990s, there were probably well over 10,000 persons in Dade County who identified themselves as Bahamian. One of the most prominent symbols of this community is the Junkanoo parade, which features vibrant percussive music and finely crafted costumes. Junkanoo festivity has its roots in the Christmas season celebrations held in the Bahamas during the preemancipation era. Though percussion instruments were used in Miami in the early twentieth century, the first formal group of Junkanooers, the Sunshine Junkanoo Band, was organized by Bruce Beneby in 1957.

Since then two other groups have formed: the Bahamas Junkanoo Revue and Babalu and the Headhunters. While the Bahamas Junkanoo Revue and the Sunshine Junkanoo Band wear painted or felt-covered cardboard costumes that are decorated with "tricks" (plastic jewels), Babalu and the Headhunters simply wear fringed pants and shirts, reminiscent of what are referred to as "scrap groups" in the Bahamas. Each of these groups typically performs with fewer than twenty members. Though the musicians are men, female dancers are sometimes also featured.

JUNKANOO INSTRUMENTATION

At the foundation of Junkanoo music in the Bahamas is the goatskin-covered goombay drum, which is suspended around the neck and played with both hands. Though these instruments were originally made from wooden kegs, Bruce Beneby introduced the use of metal barrels in the 1970s, a method that was then adopted by Bahamas-based groups as well. During the 1990s Junkanooers also began using the internal barrels from washing machines and dryers to make large bass drums called "B-52s" or "bombers." Junkanoo drumming arrangements include lead drums that set a tempo and play the most complex rhythms, seconds that play a supporting role, and bass drums for maintaining a basic pulse. Before a performance, goombay drums must be heated by a fire to tighten their skins and heighten their tones. Since the mid-1980s these drums have been augmented by tomtoms from trap sets, which do not require heating. At present, Miami's Junkanooers perform primarily with tom-toms, while musicians visiting from the Bahamas play both tom-toms and goombay drums.

Another fundamental Junkanoo instrument is the cowbell. Cowbells are played in pairs (one in each hand) and often include two or more bells attached to each handle. Cowbells provide a timeline for the drummers and increase the intensity of the music. Drummers and "bellers" sometimes blow whistles, while other Junkanooers blow small conical "foghorns." A recent addition to Junkanoo music is brass instruments, including trumpets, trombones, and sousaphones. These instruments repeat simple song verses and remain secondary to the percussion.

JUNKANOO PERFORMANCES

Junkanoo groups perform in a variety of settings in Miami, among which are festivals, private parties, and educational institutions. The two annual highlights are the Goombay Festival, which is held each June in the old Bahamian section of Coconut Grove, and the Martin Luther King Birthday parade in West Perrine, another community with a substantial Bahamian population. For both of these events, local Junkanooers are joined by large numbers of musicians from the Bahamas. Together they "rush" (parade) through neighborhood streets. Their fastpaced music and dance-like movements inspire many onlookers to join in the festivities. While Bahamas-based groups enhance Junkanoo performances in South Florida, a number of Miami Junkanooers regularly return to Nassau for the major Junkanoo parades on Boxing Day (December 26) and New Year's Day.

CARIBBEAN PERCUSSION TRADITIONS IN MIAMI