A

For Your Reference

TABLE 1. SELECTED METRIC CONVERSIONS
WHEN YOU KNOW	MULTIPLY BY	TO FIND
Temperature
Celsius (˚C)	1.8 (˚C) + 32	Fahrenheit (˚F)
Celsius (˚C)	˚C + 273.15	Kelvin (K)
degree change (Celsius)	1.8	degree change (Fahrenheit)
Fahrenheit (˚F)	[(˚F) −32] / 1.8	Celsius (˚C)
Fahrenheit (˚F)	[(˚F −32) / 1.8] + 273.15	Kelvin (K)
Kelvin (K)	K −273.15	Celsius (˚C)
Kelvin (K)	1.8(K −273.15) + 32	Fahrenheit (˚F)
WHEN YOU KNOW	MULTIPLY BY	TO FIND
Distance/Length
centimeters	0.3937	inches
kilometers	0.6214	miles
meters	3.281	feet
meters	39.37	inches
meters	0.0006214	miles
microns	0.000001	meters
millimeters	0.03937	inches
WHEN YOU KNOW	MULTIPLY BY	TO FIND
Capacity/Volume
cubic kilometers	0.2399	cubic miles
cubic meters	35.31	cubic feet
cubic meters	1.308	cubic yards
cubic meters	8.107 × 10−4	acre-feet
liters	0.2642	gallons
liters	33.81	fluid ounces
WHEN YOU KNOW	MULTIPLY BY	TO FIND
Area
hectares (10,000 square meters)	2.471	acres
hectares (10,000 square meters)	107,600	square feet
square meters	10.76	square feet
square kilometers	247.1	acres
square kilometers	0.3861	square miles
WHEN YOU KNOW	MULTIPLY BY	TO FIND
Weight/Mass
kilograms	2.205	pounds
metric tons	2205	pounds
micrograms (μg)	10−6	grams
milligrams (mg)	10−3	grams
nanograms (ng)	10−9	grams

TABLE 2. ALPHABETIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
Symbol	Element	Atomic Number	Atomic Mass*	Symbol	Element	Atomic Number	Atomic Mass*
*Atomic masses are based on the relative atomic mass of 12C=12. These values apply to the elements as they exist in materials of terrestrial origin and to certain artificial elements. Values in parenthesis are the mass number of the isotope of the longest half-life.
Ac	Actinium	89	(227)	Mt	Meitnerium	109	(266)
Al	Aluminum	13	26.982	Md	Mendelevium	101	(258)
Am	Americium	95	(243)	Hg	Mercury	80	200.59
Sb	Antimony	51	121.75	Mo	Molybdenum	42	95.94
Ar	Argon	18	39.948	Nd	Neodymium	60	144.24
As	Arsenic	33	74.922	Ne	Neon	10	20.180
At	Astatine	85	(210)	Np	Neptunium	93	237.048
Ba	Barium	56	137.33	Ni	Nickel	28	58.69
Bk	Berkelium	97	(247)	Nb	Niobium	41	92.908
Be	Beryllium	4	9.012	N	Nitrogen	7	14.007
Bi	Bismuth	83	208.980	No	Nobelium	102	(259)
Bh	Bohrium	107	(262)	Os	Osmium	76	190.2
B	Boron	5	10.811	O	Oxygen	8	15.999
Br	Bromine	35	79.904	Pd	Palladium	46	106.42
Cd	Cadmium	48	112.411	P	Phosphorus	15	30.974
Ca	Calcium	20	40.08	Pt	Platinum	78	195.08
Cf	Californium	98	(251)	Pu	Plutonium	94	(244)
C	Carbon	6	12.011	Po	Polonium	84	(209)
Ce	Cerium	58	140.115	K	Potassium	19	39.1
Cs	Cesium	55	132.90	Pr	Praseodymium	59	140.908
Cl	Chlorine	17	35.453	Pm	Promethium	61	(145)
Cr	Chromium	24	51.996	Pa	Protactinium	91	231.036
Co	Cobalt	27	58.933	Ra	Radium	88	226.025
Cu	Copper	29	63.546	Rn	Radon	86	(222)
Cm	Curium	96	(247)	Re	Rhenium	75	186.207
Ds	Darmastadtium	110	(269)	Rh	Rhodium	45	102.906
Db	Dubnium	105	(262)	Rb	Rubidium	37	85.47
Dy	Dysprosium	66	162.50	Ru	Ruthenium	44	101.07
Es	Einsteinium	99	(252)	Rf	Rutherfordium	104	(261)
Er	Erbium	68	167.26	Sm	Samarium	62	150.36
Eu	Europium	63	151.965	Sc	Scandium	21	44.966
Fm	Fermium	100	(257)	Sg	Seaborgium	106	(263)
F	Fluorine	9	18.998	Se	Selenium	34	78.96
Fr	Francium	87	(223)	Si	Silicon	14	28.086
Gd	Gadolinium	64	157.25	Ag	Silver	47	107.868
Ga	Gallium	31	69.723	Na	Sodium	11	22.990
Ge	Germanium	32	72.61	Sr	Strontium	38	87.62
Au	Gold	79	196.967	S	Sulfur	16	32.066
Hf	Hafnium	72	178.49	Ta	Tantalum	73	180.948
Hs	Hassium	108	(265)	Tc	Technetium	43	(98)
He	Helium	2	4.003	Te	Tellurium	52	127.60
Ho	Holmium	67	164.93	Tb	Terbium	65	158.925
H	Hydrogen	1	1.008	Tl	Thallium	81	204.383
In	Indium	49	114.82	Th	Thorium	90	232.038
I	Iodine	53	126.905	Tm	Thulium	69	168.934
Ir	Iridium	77	192.22	Sn	Tin	50	118.71
Fe	Iron	26	55.847	Ti	Titanium	22	47.88
Kr	Krypton	36	83.80	W	Tungsten	74	183.85
La	Lanthanum	57	138.906	U	Uranium	92	238.029
Lr	Lawrencium	103	(260)	V	Vanadium	23	50.942
Pb	Lead	82	207.2	Xe	Xenon	54	131.29
Li	Lithium	3	6.941	Yb	Ytterbium	70	173.04
Lu	Lutetium	71	174.967	Y	Yttrium	39	88.906
Mg	Magnesium	12	24.305	Zn	Zinc	30	65.38
Mn	Manganese	25	54.938	Zr	Zirconium	40	91.224

TABLE 3. COMMON ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS, AND ACRONYMS
′	minute (of arc); single prime	μmol;	micromole
″	second (of arc); double prime	μs, μsec	microsecond
+	plus	ν	frequency
+	positive charge	υ	velocity
−	minus	π or pi	ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter; double as in double bond
−	negative charge
±	plus-or-minus	σ	single as in single bond; Stefan-Boltzmann constant
∓	minus-or-plus
×	multiplied by	Σ	summation
·	multiplied by	Φ	null set
÷	divided by	ψ	amplitude of a wave (as in wave, or psi, function)
=	equals	→	reaction to right
≠	not equal to	←	reaction to left
∽	about, approximately	↔	connecting resonance forms
≅	congruent to; approximately equal to	⇆	equilibrium reaction beginning at right
≈	approximately equal to	⇄	equilibrium reaction beginning at left
≡	identical to; equivalent to	⇌	reversible reaction beginning at left
<	less than	⇋	reversible reaction beginning at right
≤	less than or equal to	↑	elimination
>	greater than	⇓	absorption
≥	greater than or equal to	a	acceleration
%	percent	A	area
°	degree (temperature; angle of arc)	ao	Bohr Unit
@	at	AAS	atomic absorption spectroscopy
—	single bond	ABS	alkylbenzene sulfate
=	double bond	ACS	American Chemical Society
: :	double bond	ADH	alcohol dehydrogenase
≡	triple bond	ADP	adenosine diphosphate
: : :	triple bond	AEC	Atomic Energy Commission
∞	infinity	AES	atomic emission spectroscopy
∝	variation	AFM	atomic force microscope; atomic force microscopy
∂	partial derivative or differential
α	proportional to, alpha	AFS	atomic fluorescence spectroscopy
√	square root	ALDH	aldehyde dehydronase
Δ	delta; increment of a variable	amp	ampere
∊0	dielectric constant; permittivity	AMS	accelerator mass spectrometry
θ	plane angle	AMU	atomic mass unit
λ	wavelength	atm.	standard atmosphere (unit of pressure)
μ	magnetic moment; micro	ATP	adenosine triphosphate
μA	microampere	β	beta
μC	microcoulomb	b.p.	boiling point
μF	microfarad	Btu	British thermal unit
μg	microgram	c	centi-; speed of light
μg/ml	microgram per milliliter	C	carbon; Celsius; centigrade; coulomb
μK	microkelvin	C	heat capacity; electric capacitance
μm	micrometer (also called micron)

TABLE 3. COMMON ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS, AND ACRONYMS [continued]
Ci	Curies	m	meter; milli-; molal (concentration)
cm	centimeter	m	mass
CT	computed tomography	M	molar (concentration)
d	d-orbital	me	electron mass
D	dipole moment	mA	milliamperes
DC	direct current	mg	milligram
deg	degree	mg/L	milligrams per liter
dr	diastereomer ratio	MHz	megahertz
e	elementary charge	min	minute
E	electric field strength; energy	ml	milliliter
Ea	activation energy	MO	molecular orbital
Eg	bandgap energy	p	p-orbital
EA	electron affinity	ω	omega
er	enantiomer ratio	ppb	parts per billion
eV	electron volts	ppm	parts per million
f	f-orbital	ppt	parts per trillion
F	Fahrenheit; Faraday's constant; fluorine	psi	per square inch; English for ψ
F	force	q	quantity
g	gram	REM	Roentgen Equivalent Man (radiation-dose unit of measure)
g	g-orbital; gas
h	hour	s	solid; s-orbital
h	Planck's constant	S	entropy
Hz	hertz	sec	second; secant
i	i-orbital	SEM	scanning electron microscope
IUPAC	International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry	SI	Système Internationale (International System of Measurements)
J	joule	SPM	scanning probe microscope
J	electric current density	STM	scanning tunneling microscope
k	k-orbital	STP	standard temperature and pressue (˚C, 1 atm)
K	degrees Kelvin; Kelvin; potassium	Sv	sievert unit (1 Sv = 100 REM; used to measure radiation dose)
Ka	acidity constant for the dissociation of weak acid (the weaker the acid, the lower the Ka value	t	time
kB	Boltzmann's constant	T	moment of force, thermodynamic temperature (in degrees Kelvin); torque
Kg	kilogram	Tc	critical temperature
kHz	kilohertz	TEM	transmission electron microscope
kJ	kilojoule	u	unified atomic mass unit
kJ mol	kilojoule mole	U	electric potential
km	kilometer	V	electric potential; vanadium; volume
Km	Michaelis constant	V	volt
l	length; liquid	vap.	vaporization
L	lambert; liter	VB	valence bond
L	length; Avogadro's constant	vel.	velocity
LD	lethal dose	VSEPR	valence shell electron pair repulsion
L/mole	liters per mole	Z	atomic number
ln	natural logarithm
log	logarithm

PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS*†

*Each element in the table is listed with (from top to bottom) its atomic number, its name, its symbol, and its atomic mass. Atomic mass numbers in parentheses are the mass numbers of the longest-lived isotope. Other atomic mass numbers are the average mass number of the naturally occurring isotopes.

†The names and labels for elements beyond number 103 are controversial. IUPAC initially ruled in favor of Latin names based on atomic number, but in 1994 a set of specific names and symbols was suggested. After considerable debate, a revised final list of names for elements 104–109 was issued on August 30, 1997. Temporary names were also assigned for elements 110 and 111. Various groups have suggested alternatives names for some of these elements. Additional elements continue to be synthesized, though with increasing difficulty, with no definite upper atomic-number limit yet established.