Information Systems

Before we can understand information systems, we should ask what is information? What is a system? Information can be regarded as that which is happening in our brains: the questions we continuously ask—what, where, when, who—and the answers we get. A second approach is to consider information as something that our minds and hands produce, something we give to others. Information is something tangible that we construct from a state of consciousness. What you are reading here is information. It is a product of the thinking that made it possible. That thinking is also information—it is the process that made the product possible. Information includes what we write about in letters, the subjects we study in school, the things we read in newspapers, or watch on TV or film, and the numbers we find printed on our pay checks. Information is a material product: something that we can acquire, keep, and give to others.

We are all systems. The body we carry around is a system. There are many components, or subsystems, of our bodies—the nervous system, the digestive system, the circulatory system, and others. Almost all things around us are systems: pens and pencils are systems allowing us to write and express ourselves and give ideas and feelings to others. Media entertainment units such as televisions, and computers that help us do many things—all of these are systems. An organization of people, what they do and produce, is a system. The public transportation we use to get to work or school is a system. A system is an environment that includes humans, tools, and ways of doing things for a goal and purpose.

We ourselves are information systems because we use the native capacity of our minds and hands to interact with energy and matter around us, including the air we breathe and the ground on which we stand. We have the capacity to be continuously aware or conscious of what is happening to and around us. This is true from the very moment we are born to the time we die.

We cannot live without information or the ability to process and respond to it. But, we are limited as to what our bodies and minds can see, hear, touch, smell, and, in general, do. So we invent and create tools—technology—that add to our ability and capacity to do things.

The wheel, the carriage, the automobile, and then the airplane are all human-designed technologies—systems—that enable us to move from one place to another, faster and longer, overcoming the physical limits of our bodies. Information technology (IT) is created to extend our biological ability to think, learn, remember, anticipate, and resolve many of the physical and mental tasks we face each day.

Human beings invented paper, chalk, and pens and pencils to help us record and present our thoughts and experiences. Later, in the 1450s, Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press made the sharing of written ideas with multiple people more efficient and affordable. The early Chinese invented the abacus, a kind of primitive accounting and adding machine to help facilitate arithmetic computations. Present-day computers are extensions of this early information technology.

There are many kinds of information technologies, including radars, telephones, FAX machines, computers, and satellites, to list a few. These technologies contribute to many forms of information systems such as systems for information retrieval and systems that help us solve problems or make decisions. Some systems help us avoid or reduce paper work. There are information systems that help manage organizations and there are specialized kinds of information systems such as artificial intelligence (AI) and expert systems. Basically, information systems are categorized by the specific work they do and the software that enables them to function as they do. Software consists of instructions that tell the computer what to do, how to do it, and when.

Information Retrieval Systems

An information retrieval system (IRS) is an environment of people, technologies, and procedures (software) that help find data, information, and knowledge resources that can be located in a particular library or, for that matter, anywhere they exist. Information about available resources is acquired, stored, searched, and retrieved when it is needed. An IRS can help users in general ways, such as obtaining data on a subject of general interest, or in more specific ways, such as retrieving information to help them find a good job. Information retrieval software allows a user to formulate and ask a question, then it searches a database to create an appropriate response. A database is a collection of data on a specific subject organized in such a way that a person can locate and acquire chunks of information for specific purposes. Retrieving information is a skill that requires training and experience. Librarians in general, and reference or special librarians in particular, are the professionals who serve this function.

Decision Support Systems

Information systems are particularly important in adding to our capability to solve problems and make decisions. With the amount of information being generated each day in almost every aspect of our lives, solving problems and making decisions can be complicated. Decision support systems (DSS) are information systems with a specific function to help people with the problem-solving and decision-making process. As with all modern information systems, a DSS consists of a collection of people, procedures, software, and databases with a purpose. The computer is the primary technology in such systems; other information technologies may include electronic displays (e.g. a TV monitor) and teletransmission capabilities (telephone links). DSS systems help identify the factors that are creating the problem, provide ways through which approaches can be established to resolve the problems, and help in the selection of choices that are available to resolve the problem.

Expert Systems

Quite often in solving problems it is wise to benefit from those who know much about a subject—experts in a particular subject area or field. We refer to these information systems as expert systems (ES). An expert system is a specific kind of information system in which computer software serves the same function expected of an expert. The computer, programmed to mimic the thought processes of experts, provides the decision-maker with suggestions as to the best choice of action for a particular problem situation. The hope is that we can design computers (and generally information systems) that extend our ability to think, learn, and act as an expert.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a familiar expression of this idea. It is exciting to see if a machine can beat a human in playing chess, or vice versa. During the last years of the twentieth century, information processing technologists began using computer-generated images and sounds, rather than real objects, to explore the relationships between human beings and computer-generated environments known as virtual reality (VR). Virtual reality is part of an area in AI where the objective is to explore how the computer can extend the limits of how we see the world and our place in it. Expanding our understanding of reality can enable us to analyze and design ever better information systems.

Lastly, robots exemplify another perspective on information systems. Robots are machines that are designed to do what humans can do. An important application of this technology has been to create robots to perform certain functions that are dangerous for human beings, or to do tasks that can be more effectively performed by machine than by people. Although it may not have the physical appearance of a human being, a robot may be thought of as a machine acting as a person while being controlled by a computer.

Management Information Systems

Information systems can be found in our homes, our schools, our workplaces, and our places of recreation and relaxation. Information systems are part of all sorts of organizations including schools, the local YMCA, worldwide fast food companies, and the governments and military operations of countries around the globe. Within these organizations, resources, both human and technological, require management. A management information system (MIS) is an environment that consists of people, technology (i.e., computers), and procedures that help an organization plan, operate, and control the access and use of resources, both human and material. Resources managed by such systems can include the labor force (executives, line workers, sales people), computer centers, photo and research labs, mailrooms, libraries, and other subsystems of a larger organization. Management information systems help an organization achieve its objectives through the processing and sharing of data and information important to the organization at all levels.

The Internet

Last, but certainly not least, we should include the Internet as an important part of an information system. Since 1950, developments in computer and teletransmission technology (telephone, radio, and FAX, for example) have changed the ways we can communicate with each other. The Internet began as a tool for scientists to discuss their research work over long distances (ARPANET). As this technology evolved and access expanded to business, industry, education, and personal users, the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) were born. They have changed the way we work, learn, and stay in touch with others. Now we can find, through the Internet, a friend or relative that we have not seen or communicated with in years; we can send and receive letters electronically and instantly (without a stamp); we can purchase almost anything without physically traveling to a store; and we can quickly locate products and services via the Internet that may not be available in our own geographic neighborhoods. We can even build businesses and create networks of coworkers and customers without the need for office space and daily commuting.

Computer-based information systems have changed the way we gather, process, and share information. They have enhanced our ability to identify and solve problems and to perform tasks that are beyond our physical ability. Information system technology will continue to provide new horizons to us.

Anthony Debons

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