A

CHRONOLOGY

The Chronology is arranged year by year from 1450 to 1789 (and a little beyond) and is organized under six major headings to cover the Encyclopedia's scope thematically and over time. Most items listed below are discussed in articles within the Encyclopedia, and can be located by referring to the Table of Contents and the Index.

Works first published in Latin, French, German, Italian, or Spanish are given in their original titles; translations are supplied for works first published in less commonly known languages.

Rulers and popes are identified at the beginning of their reign, with inclusive dates of rule. For example, at 1558: "Elizabeth I (England) 1558–1603."

Because the section headings are not always mutually exclusive, certain subjects may be listed under more than one heading. For instance, a philosopher may sometimes be listed under Literature and Scholarship as well as under Religion and Philosophy.

Works and events in mathematics and statistics are listed under Science and Technology.

Abbreviations:

co.

= company (pl., cos.)

d.

= died

est.

= established

fd.

= founded

ft.

= fort

HRE

= Holy Roman Emperor/Empire

incl.

= included, including

mt.

= mount, mountain (pl., mts.)

publ.

= published

r.

= ruled, reigned

Tr.

= treaty

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1450	Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, 1450–1466
1451	Mehmed II (Ottoman Empire), 1451–1481
1452	Frederick III (HRE), 1452–1493, first Habsburg
1453	Hundred Years' War ends; Turks capture Constantinople; Millet system est. by Sultan Mehmed II
1454	Henry IV (Castile), 1454–1474; Peace of Lodi; Thirteen Years' War between Poland and Russia, 1454–1466
1455	Wars of the Roses (England), 1455–1485; Portuguese fleets reach Senegal River, begin to exchange slaves and manufactured gifts for gold	Pope Callistus, 1455–1458; d. Zygmunt Oleśnicki, cardinal and Polish regent, 1434–1447
1456	d. János Hunyadi
1457	Christian I of Denmark reigns as king of Sweden, 1457–1464
1458	Turks sack the Acropolis; George of Podebrady (Bohemia), 1458–1471; Matthias Corvinus (Hungary), 1458–1490; John II (Spain), 1458–1479; Portuguese occupy Ksar as-Saghir on Moroccan coast	Pope Pius II, 1458–1464

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
						1450 Vatican Library fd.	1450
		Glasgow University fd.	1451
Leon Battista Alberti, De Re Aedificatoria; Lorenzo Ghiberti completes Gates of Paradise			1452
		Johannes Gutenberg prints Bible	1453
			1454
d. Fra Angelico; d. Lorenzo Ghiberti; d. Antonio Pisano, il Pisanello		d. Juan de Mena	1455
			1456
		d. Lorenzo Valla	1457
			1458

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1459			Fra Mauro creates world map for Portuguese king Afonso V
1460	d. Prince Henry the Navigator (Portugal); James III (Scotland), 1460–1488
1461	Edward IV (England), 1461–1470; Louis XI (France), 1461–1483
1462	Ivan III (Muscovy), 1462–1505, first to called himself tsar of all Rus'	First Monte di Pietàest. by Franciscans in Perugia
1463		d. Catherine of Bologna
1464	Piero I de' Medici, ruler of Florence, 1464–1469; Charles XIII (Sweden), 1464–1465; Postal service est. in France by Louis XI	d. Nicholas of Cusa; Pope Paul II, 1464–1471
1465	Christian I of Denmark reigns as king of Sweden, 1465–1467
1466	Peace of Toruń ends Thirteen Years' War between Poland and Russia; Teutonic Knights return conquered territories to Poland		Leon Battista Alberti invents cypher disk system
1467	Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 1467–1477; Charles VIII (Sweden), 1467–1470
1468

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
		d. Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini	1459
		d. Guarino Guarini	1460
			1461
		Platonic Academy est. by Marsilio Ficino	1462
		d. François Villon	1463
			1464
Antonio del Pollaiulo, Battle of the Nudes; Andrea del Verrocchio, Christ and Doubting Thomas, 1465–1483			1465
d. Donatello			1466
			1467
		d. Johannes Gutenberg	1468

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1469	Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragón and Isabella of Castile lays groundwork for unification of Spain; Lorenzo de' Medici, ruler of Florence, 1469–1492
1470	Henry VI (England), 1470–1471; Portuguese arrive in São Tomé, Ano Bom, and Príncipe
1471	Vladislav II (Bohemia), 1471–1516; Edward VI (England), 1471–1483; Sten Stur the Elder, regent of Sweden, 1471–1497; Portuguese occupy Arzilla and Tangier; Italian city-states begin striking coins known as "testons"	d. Thomas à Kempis (author of Imitation of Christ); Pope Sixtus IV, 1471–1484
1472	Ivan III of Muscovy marries Sofiia (Zoë) Paleologue	d. Cardinal Bessarion; d. Janus Pannonius
1473
1474	Isabella, queen of Castile, 1474–1504; Ferdinand serves as king consort (as Ferdinand V, 1474–1504)
1475	Cologne recognized as an imperial free city by HRE Frederick III; Crimean Khanate accepts vassalage to Ottoman sultan
1476			d. Regiomontanus (Johann Müller)

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
d. Filarete (Antonio di Pietro Averlino); d. Fra Filippo Lippi			1469
		Sir John Fortescue, De Laudibus Legum Angliae; First printing press in Paris est. by Guillaume Fichet and Johann Heynlin	1470
		d. Thomas Malory; Lorenzo Valla, Elegantiae Linguae Latinae Libri Sex	1471
d. Leon Battista Alberti		d. Peter Luder	1472
		Printing press est. at Lyon	1473
	d. Guillaume Dufay		1474
Dormition Cathedral constructed by Aristotele Fioravanti in Moscow Kremlin, 1475–1479			1475
Hugo van der Goes, Adoration of the Magi altarpiece, 1476–1478 (commissioned by Tomasso Portinari for church of St. Egidio)		William Caxton sets up printing press at Westminster	1476

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1477	Burgundy divided between France and HRE after death of Duke Charles the Bold
1478	Megli Giray, Crimean khan, 1478–1515; Novgorod conquered by Muscovy; Pazzi conspiracy in Florence	Spanish Inquisition est.
1479	Ferdinand II becomes king of Aragón, 1479–1516, rules Aragón and Castile jointly with Isabella; Tr. of Alcacovas
1480	Ivan III confronts Golden Horde, ending Mongol supremacy in Russia; Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan, 1480–1499
1481	Bayezid II (Ottoman Empire), 1481–1512; John II (Portugal), 1481–1495; Agreement of Stans guarantees internal autonomy and mutual support of Swiss cantons
1482	Peace of Arras; Kiev plundered by Mengli Giray; d. Federico da Montefeltro; Fort of São Jorge da Mina (Ghana) est. by Portuguese
1483	John (Denmark and Norway), 1483–1513; Edward V (England), 1483, followed by Richard III, 1483–1485; Charles VIII (France), 1483–1498
1484	Portuguese arrive at Congo River	Pope Innocent VIII, 1484–1492

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
Sandro Botticelli, La Primavera	Johannes Tinctoris, Liber de Arte Contrapuncti	University of Uppsala fd.	1477
			1478
		Copenhagen University fd.; d. John Fortescue	1479
		d. Jan Długosz, after completing Historia Polonica	1480
d. Jean Fouquet			1481
d. Luca Della Robbia			1482
			1483
Annunciation Cathedral built as Kremlin palace church, 1484–1489; Sandro Botticelli, Birth of Venus			1484

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1485	Battle of Bosworth field; Henry VII (England), 1485–1509, first Tudor king; Portuguese reach Angola; Saxony divided by dukes Albert and Ernest
1486	Maximilian I becomes coregent with his father, HRE Frederick III; Frederick III "the Wise," elector of Saxony, 1486–1525
1487
1488	James IV (Scotland), 1488–1513
1489
1490	Vladislas I (Hungary), 1490–1516, king of Bohemia (as Vladislav II) from 1471
1491	Anne of Brittany becomes queen of France by marriage to Charles VIII, 1491–1498
1492	Piero II, ruler of Florence, 1492–1494; John I Albert (Poland), 1492–1501; Alexander, grand duke of Lithuania, 1492–1506; Ivan III of Muscovy invades Lithuania, 1492–1494; Capitulation of Granada to Spain; Jews expelled from Spain; first voyage of Christopher Columbus, 1492–1493	Pope Alexander VI, 1492–1503	Martin Behaim's globe (omits America)

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
		Thomas Malory, Le morte d'Arthur	1485
		Pico della Mirandola, De Hominis Dignitatis Oratio	1486
Faceted Palace built in Moscow Kremlin, 1487–1491			1487
d. Andrea del Verrocchio			1488
Michelangelo Buonarroti, Madonna of the Stairs, 1489–1492			1489
			1490
		d. William Caxton	1491
d. Piero della Francesca			1492

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1493	Maximilian I (HRE), 1493–1519; Pope Alexander VI issues bulls Inter Caetera, dividing New World between Spain and Portugal; second voyage of Christopher Columbus, 1493–1496
1494	Habsburg-Valois conflict (Italian Wars), 1494–1559; French invade Italy; Medici exiled from Florence, republican rule 1494–1512; Tr. of Tordesillas
1495	Charles VIII of France enters Naples; Diet of Worms; Manuel I (Portugal), 1495–1521
1496	City of Santo Domingo fd. by Christopher Columbus	Isaac Abravanel, Wellsprings of Salvation
1497	Cabot's voyage to Canada; Vasco da Gama begins voyage to India; Muscovite law code (Sudebnik) promulgated; Spanish doubloon introduced, becomes common gold coin of international trade; John of Denmark reigns as John II of Sweden, 1497–1501	Oratory of Divine Love fd. in Genoa by Ettore Vernazza
1498	d. John Cabot; third voyage of Christopher Columbus, 1498–1500; Louis XII (France), 1498–1515; Vasco da Gama reaches Malabar coast (southwest) of India	d. Girolamo Savonarola (burned at the stake for heresy); d. Tomás de Torquemada

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
		Nuremberg Chronicle printed	1493
d. Domenico Ghirlandaio		Sebastian Brant, Das Narrenschiff; d. Pico della Mirandola; d. Angelo Poliziano	1494
Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights; Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, 1495–1498		Aldus Manutius the Elder's Aldine Press issues first book (Erotemata of Constantine Lascaris)	1495
		d. Filippo Buonaccorsi (Callimachus)	1496
			1497
d. Antonio Pollaiuolo		d. Giulio Pomponio Leto	1498

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1499	Anne of Britanny marries Louis XII, becoming queen of France for the second time, 1499–1514; Amerigo Vespucci voyages to America; Perkin Warbeck executed
1500	Álvares Pedro Cabral reaches Brazil; Fort of Cabo das Redes est. by Portuguese; d. Bartolomeu Dias; Second Muscovite-Lithuanian War, 1500–1503
1501	Alexander (Poland), 1501–1506; Sten Stur the Elder, regent of Sweden, 1501–1503
1502	Last voyage of Christopher Columbus, 1502–1504
1503	d. Sofiia Paleologue; Seville becomes center of Spanish commerce with the Americas; Spanish rule in Naples begins	Desiderius Erasmus, Enchiridion Militis Christiani, Pope Julius II, 1503–1513
1504	Tr. of Lyon; Joanna I, "the Mad" (Spain), 1504–1555, queen of Castile from 1504 and Aragón from 1516 (until 1506 power exercised by husband Philip I, until 1516 by father Ferdinand II, and thereafter by son Charles I); Spain takes over Kingdom of Naples (until 1713); Svante Nilsson, regent of Sweden, 1504–1512	"Judaizers" condemned and executed in Russia

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
Michelangelo Buonarroti, Pietà		University of Alcalá de Hanares fd. by Cardinal Cisneros; d. Marsilio Ficino; Aldus Manutius prints illustrated edition of Francesco Colonna's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili	1499
Hieronymus Bosch, Ship of Fools; Lucas Cranach the Elder, Crucifixion		Aldus Manutius (Venice) introduces octavo format for printed books; University of Valencia fd.	1500
Michelangelo Buonarroti, David, 1501–1504			1501
d. Francesco di Giorgio Martini; Leonardo da Vinci, Virgin and Child with St. Anne, c. 1502–1516		Konrad Celtis (Pickel), Quattuor Libri Amorum; Estienne Press est.; University of Wittenberg fd.	1502
Raphael, Coronation of the Virgin; Leonardo da Vinci, La Gioconda (Mona Lisa) and Battle of Anghiari, c. 1503–1506			1503
		Jacopo Sannazaro, Arcadia; University of Santiago de Compostela fd.	1504

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1505	Francisco d'Almeida razes Swahili coastal city of Kilwa; Vasilii III (Muscovy), 1505–1533
1506	d. Christopher Columbus; Sigismund I (Poland), 1506–1548
1507	d. Cesare Borgia; Portuguese occupy Safi and Azemmur on Moroccan coast, 1507–1513	Tommaso de Vio (Cajetan) writes commentary on Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas, 1507–1520	Martin Waldseemüller, Cosmographia Introductio
1508	League of Cambrai	d. Isaac Abravanel; d. Nil Sorskii
1509	Henry VIII (England) 1509–1547; Portuguese reach Malacca
1510	Muscovy annexes Pskov; Portuguese conquer Goa	d. St. Catherine of Genoa
1511	Portuguese conquer Melaka (Malay peninsula)	King of France and HRE convene council at Pisa to force reforms on Pope Julius II; Johannes Reuchlin, Augenspiegel
1512	HRE adopts official title "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation"; Third Muscovite-Lithuanian War, 1512–1522; Selim I (Ottoman Empire), 1512–1520; Sten Stur the Younger, regent of Sweden, 1512–1520; d. Amerigo Vespucci	Fifth Lateran Council, 1512–1517

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
Giorgione, The Tempest; Raphael, The Grand Duke's Madonna			1505
Laocöon discovered; d. Andrea Mantegna		University of Frankfurt an der Oder fd.	1506
			1507
Michelangelo paints Sistine Chapel ceiling, 1508–1512; Raphael, frescoes in the Stanza della Segnatura in Vatican papal apartments, incl. The School of Athens, 1508–1511		Guillaume Budé, Annotationes in Pandectas, d. Konrad Celtis (Pickel)	1508
		St. Paul's School fd. in London by John Colet	1509
d. Sandro Botticelli; Giorgione, Sleeping Venus; d. Giorgione	Everyman first performed		1510
	d. Johannes Tinctoris	Erasmus, Moriae Encomium	1511
			1512

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1513	Christian II (Denmark and Norway), 1513–1523; James V (Scotland), 1513–1542; Vasco Nuñez de Balboa crosses Isthmus of Panama to reach Pacific Ocean; Juan Ponce de León discovers Florida	Pope Leo X, 1513–1521
1514	d. Anne of Brittany; Peasant uprising in Hungary, led by György Dósza; Muscovites capture Smolensk	Roman Oratory fd.
1515	d. Alfonso de Albuquerque, first Portuguese governor general of Goa; Francis I (France), 1515–1547; Milan annexed by France; Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, lord chancellor of England, 1515–1529	d. Joseph of Volokolamsk
1516	Louis II (Bohemia and Hungary), 1516–1526; Charles I (Spain), from 1519 HRE as Charles V, 1516–1556	Concordat of Bologna rescinds 1438 Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges; Gasparo Contarini, On the Office of Bishop; Desiderius Erasmus publishes new Latin version of New Testament
1517		d. Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, Spanish Franciscan reformer; Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses
1518	Mercurio de Gattinara, chancellor to HRE Charles V, 1518–1530	Huldrych Zwingli begins preaching in Zurich	First book on coded messages published; Royal College of Physicians fd.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
Albrecht Dürer, Knight, Death, and the Devil, St. Jerome in His Study, and Melancolia I		Niccolò Machiavelli writes The Prince and the Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy	1513
d. Donato Bramante			1514
Château of Blois built in Loire Valley, 1515–1524		Guillaume Budé, De Asse et Partibus Ejus; Ein kurzveilig Lesen von Till Eulenspiegel; Lateran Council forbids printing of books without approval of Roman Catholic authorities; d. Aldus Manutius the Elder	1515
d. Giovanni Bellini; d. Hieronymus Bosch; Raphael, Sistine Madonna; Titian, The Assumption, 1516–1518		Ludovico Ariosto, Orlando Furioso; Desiderius Erasmus, Institutio Principis Christiani; Sir Thomas More, Utopia; d. Baptista Spagnoli (Mantuanus)	1516
d. Fra Bartolomeo della Porta; Raphael, The Transfiguration; Andrea del Sarto, Madonna of the Harpies		Maciej of Miechów, Tractatus de Duabus Sarmatiis	1517
		Desiderius Erasmus, Colloquia	1518

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1519	d. Lucrezia Borgia; Charles V (HRE), 1519–1556; Hernán Cortés's expedition to Mexico; Fuggerei, first welfare housing project, fd. by Jakob II Fugger; Ferdinand Magellan sails around the world, through tip of South America (Strait of Magellan), to Philippine Islands, 1519–1521; Joachimstaler coins (talers or dollars) first produced	d. John Colet
1520	Comuneros Revolt, 1520–1521; Christian II of Denmark rules as king of Sweden, 1520–1521; Field of the Cloth of Gold; Suleiman the Magnificent (Ottoman Empire), 1520–1566	King Henry VIII of England, Defense of the Seven Sacraments; Martin Luther, An den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation and Von der Freiheit eines Christenmenschen; Sigismund I of Poland bans Lutheran books
1521	Turks capture Belgrade; Diet of Worms; Parma becomes part of Papal States; John III (Portugal), 1521–1557; Hernán Cortés conquers Tenochtitlán; d. Ferdinand Magellan	Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther (Decet Romanum Pontificem); Henry VIII named "Defender of the Faith"; Philipp Melanchthon, Loci Communes
1522	Milan taken from France by HRE; Turks capture Rhodes; Francis I introduces bonds (rentes) guaranteed by Paris city government and est. bureau to sell state offices	Pope Adrian VI, 1522–1523; Martin Luther publishes German translation of New Testament; Complutensian Polyglot Bible
1523	Kalmar Union between Denmark, Sweden, and Norway dissolved; Frederick I (Denmark and Norway), 1523–1533; Gustav I Vasa (Sweden), 1523–1560	Pope Clement VII, 1523–1534	Schöner's map (includes both American continents)

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
Château of Chambord built in Loire valley, 1519–1550; d. Leonardo da Vinci		d. John Colet; Maciej of Miechów, Chronica Polonorum; Claude de Seyssel, La grant monarchie de France	1519
d. Raphael Sanzio; Titian, Bacchus and Ariadne, 1520–1523		d. Henry Estienne the Elder; Pico della Mirandola, Examen Vanitatis	1520
d. Piero di Cosimo	d. Josquin des Prez	d. Sebastian Brant; Niccolò Machiavelli, Arte della guerra	1521
	d. Jean Mouton	Biernat of Lublin, versified Aesop; d. Johann Reuchlin	1522
Hans Holbein the Younger, Erasmus of Rotterdam; d. Perugino; d. Luca Signorelli		Mikołaj Hussowczyk (Hussovianus), Carmen de Statura, Feritate, ac Venatione Bisontis; Hans Sachs, Der Wittenbergisch Nachtigall; Juan Luis Vives, De Ratione Studii Puerilis	1523

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1524	German Peasants' War, 1524–1525; Council of the Indies est. to govern Spanish colonies in America; d. Vasco da Gama		d. Nicolò Leoniceno, scholar of medicine
1525	Battle of Pavia; Francis I taken prisoner; Albert of Brandenburg, grand master of Teutonic order, converts East Prussia into secular duchy; d. Jakob II Fugger, "the Rich"	d. Thomas Müntzer; William Tyndale publishes English translation of Bible
1526	Battle of Mohács; d. Louis II (Bohemia and Hungary); Ferdinand I (Bohemia and Hungary), 1526–1564, HRE from 1556; János Zápolya (Szápolyai), 1526–1540, rival to Ferdinand I of Habsburg as king of Hungary; Spanish conquest of Yucatán, 1526–1546	New Testament translated into Swedish by Laurentius and Olaus Petri involved
1527	Henry VIII seeks annulment of marriage to Catherine of Aragón to marry Anne Boleyn; Sack of Rome by HRE Charles V's troops
1528	Francis I makes Paris his principal place of residence
1529	Turks besiege Vienna; First Lithuanian Statute	Colloquy of Marburg

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
d. Hans Holbein the Elder	Gian Giorgio Trissino, Sofonisba	Pietro Aretino, "Aretino's Postures"	1524
		Galeazzo Flavio Capella, "On the Excellence and Dignity of Women"	1525
Correggio (Antonio Allegri), Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine; Jacopo da Pontormo, Deposition			1526
		Bartolomé de Las Casas begins Historia apologética, preface to Historia de las Indias; d. Niccolò Machiavelli	1527
d. Albrecht Dürer; Galerie François I built at Fontainebleau; d. Matthias Grünewald; d. Jacopo Palma (Vecchio)		Baldassare Castiglione, Il cortegiano	1528
		Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, "On the Nobility and Excellence of the Feminine Sex"; Guillaume Budé, Commentarii Linguae Graecae; d. Baldassare Castiglione; Collège de France fd.; d. John Skelton	1529

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1530	Imperial Diet at Augsburg; Medici return to Florence; Polish monarchy becomes elective; Francisco Pizarro begins conquest of Peru; d. Cardinal Thomas Wolsey	Augsburg Confession; Ignatius of Loyola, Spiritual Exercises
1531	Schmalkaldic League formed by Lutheran princes; Stock exchange est. at Antwerp; Portuguese est. trading post at Sena on Zambezi River (Mozambique)	Sebastian Franck, Chronica: Zeitbuch und Geschichtsbibel; Politian, translation of Epictetus's Enchiridion (Handbook); d. Huldrych Zwingli, at Battle of Kappel; Second Religious Peace of Kappel provides for religious coexistence in Switzerland
1532	Thomas Cromwell becomes principal advisor to Henry VIII, 1532–1540	Solomon Molcho (Diogo Pires) burned at the stake for heresy	Otto Brunfels, Herbarum Vivae Eicones
1533	Ivan IV, "the Terrible" (Russia), 1533–1584; Cuzco conquered by Francisco Pizarro
1534	Affair of the Placards in France; Jacques Cartier sets out to explore Gulf and River of St. Lawrence; Christian III (Denmark and Norway), 1534–1559	Act of Supremacy passed in England; Anabaptist rule in Münster, 1534–1535; Martin Luther publishes German translation of Bible; Pope Paul III, 1534–1549	d. Otto Brunfels
1535	Lima fd. by Francisco Pizarro; Spain absorbs Duchy of Milan after death of Francesco II Sforza	Company of St. Ursula fd. by Angela Merici; Miles Coverdale prints first complete English Bible; d. Jan van Leyden (executed)
1536	Buenos Aires fd.; Gonzaga family of Mantua acquires Montferrat	John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion; First Helvetic Confession; Inquisition est. in Portugal; d. Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples; d. William Tyndale (executed)	Paracelsus, Great Surgery Book

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
Lucas Cranach the Elder, The Judgment of Paris		Collegium Trilinguae (or Collège Royale, later Collège de France) fd. by Francis I; d. Jacopo Sannazaro	1530
d. Vincenzo Catena		Jan Amos Comenius, Janua Liguarum Reserata; Robert Estienne, Dictionarium Seu Linguae Latinae Thesaurus; University of Granada fd.	1531
		François Rabelais's Gargantua and Pantagruel stories appear, 1532–1564	1532
d. Veit Stoss		d. Ludovico Ariosto	1533
d. Correggio (Antonio Allegri); Titian, Venus and Adonis, 1553–1554			1534
Hans Holbein the Younger, Henry VIII		d. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa of Nettesheim; Guillaume Budé, De Transitu Hellenismi ad Christianismum; d. Sir Thomas More	1535
		d. Desiderius Erasmus; Francesco Guicciardini writes Storia d'Italia, 1536–1540	1536

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1537	Cosimo I de' Medici, duke of Florence, 1537–1574	Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia, Pope Paul III condemns enslavement of American natives
1538	Holy League against Ottomans, 1538–1540; Secret treaty of Nagyvárad divides Hungary	King Henry VIII of England excommunicated by Pope Paul III; d. David Reuveni
1539		Six Articles define Anglican faith	Olaus Magnus produces a map of the world
1540	Thomas Cromwell executed; Milan given to Philip of Spain; Tr. between Venice and Turkey	Edict of Fontainebleau defines heresy as treason against God and king; Philipp Melanchthon, Variata; d. Angela Merici
1541	d. Francisco Pizarro	Gustav Vasa's Bible (complete Swedish version); New Testament translated into Hungarian; Society of Jesus approved by Pope Paul III; d. Juan de Valdés	d. Paracelsus
1542	"Great Debasement" of coinage in England; Mary (Stuart), Queen of Scots, 1542–1567; New Laws stipulate that encomienda in Spanish America cannot be a hereditary grant	d. Gasparo Contarini; d. Sebastian Franck; Roman Inquisition (Holy Office) est.	Leonhard Fuchs, De Historia Stirpium
1543		d. Gian Matteo Giberti; Petrus Ramus, Dialecticae Institutiones and Aristotelicae Aminadversiones	Nicolaus Copernicus, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestiam; d. Copernicus; Andreas Vesalius, De Humani Corporis Fabrica; First university botanical gardens fd. at Pisa
1544			Sebastian Münster, Cosmographia

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
Sebastiano Serlio, Trattato di architettura	d. Gil Vicente	d. Andrzej Krzycki (Cricius)	1537
d. Albrecht Altdorfer; Titian, Venus of Urbino		Juan Luis Vives, De Anima et Vita Libri Tres	1538
			1539
Il Bronzino, Eleonora of Toledo and Her Son Giovanni de' Medici; d. Jean Clouet; d. Giovanni Battista di Jacopo, il Rosso Fiorentino; d. Parmigianino		d. Guillaume Budé; d. Francesco Guicciardini; d. Juan Luis Vives	1540
Hôtel Grand Ferrare built by Sebastiano Serlio, 1541–1548	Giambattista Giraldi, Orbecche; d. Fernando de Rojas		1541
			1542
d. Hans Holbein the Younger		d. Klemens Janicki (Janicius)	1543
		University of Königsberg fd.; d. Clément Marot; printing press brought to Mexico	1544

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1545	Duchy of Parma and Piacenza created by Pope Paul III; Pier Luigi Farnese becomes duke, 1545–1547; Silver deposits discovered at Potosí, Peru	Council of Trent, 1545–1563; Bartolomé de Las Casas, Confesionario	Botanical gardens fd. at University of Padua
1546	Schmalkaldic War, 1546–1547	d. Martin Luther; d. Francisco de Vitoria
1547	d. Francisco de los Cobos; d. Hernán Cortés; Edward VI (England), 1547–1553; Henry II (France), 1547–1559; Ivan IV crowned tsar of Russia; Moscow destroyed by fire; right to plead before royal courts in England restricted to students of the Inns of Court	Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas printed (first printed book in Lithuanian); d. Jacopo Sadoleto; d. Tommaso de Vio Cajetan
1548	Sigismund II Augustus (Poland), 1548–1572; Gonzalo Pizarro executed; pure-blood statute first imposed in Toledo	HRE Charles V issues Interim
1549		Book of Common Prayer authorized for use in Church of England; Jesuits arrive in Brazil; Francis Xavier arrives in Japan to found Jesuit mission
1550	New Russian law code (Sudebnik) issued	Pope Julius III, 1550–1555

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
Benvenuto Cellini, Perseus and Medusa, 1545–1554	First documented commedia dell'arte troupe of actors for hire formed in Padua	Conrad Gessner, Biblioteca Universalis	1545
Il Bronzino, Allegory of Venus			1546
d. Sebastiano del Piombo; Tintoretto, San Marco Freeing the Slave		d. Pietro Bembo; d. Vittoria Colonna; Marguerite de Navarre, Les Marguerites de la Marguerite des princesses; d. Jacopo Sadoleto	1547
Sinan completes Sehzade mosque; Titian, Charles V on Horseback		John Bale, Illustrium Maioris Britanniae Scriptorum; d. Jan Dantyszek (Dantiscus); first Jesuit school opens in Messina, Sicily	1548
		Joachim Du Bellay, Défense et illustration de langue française; d. Marguerite de Navarre	1549
Andrea Palladio, Villa Rotonda, near Vicenza; Sinan, mosque of Suleiman I in Istanbul, 1550–1557; Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists; Villa d'Este built near Tivoli	Hans Sachs, Der farent Schüler im Paradeis	d. Andrea Alciati; Girolamo Muzio, Il duello; Pierre de Ronsard, Odes; Gianfrancesco Straparola, Piacevoli notti; d. Gian Giorgio Trissino	1550

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1551	Henry II est. first mechanized mint in Paris	d. Martin Bucer; Council of Russian Orthodox Church enacts Hundred Chapters; Luigi Lippomano, Sanctorum Priscorum Patrum Vitae, 1551–1560	Conrad Gessner, Historiae Animalium, 1551–1587
1552	Kazan' conquered by Moscow	Polish Diet vacates decisions of ecclesiastical courts against heretics and tithe-resisters; d. Francis Xavier	d. Sebastian Münster
1553	Jane (England) (Lady Jane Grey), 1553; Mary I Tudor (England), 1553–1558; English expedition to White Sea, reaches Archangel'sk and est. trade links with Moscow
1554	Mary I Tudor marries Philip of Spain; Jane Grey executed
1555	Religious Peace of Augsburg; Philip II of Spain inherits Southern Netherlands; English Muscovy Company est. by Sebastian Cabot and London merchants; Havana sacked by French pirates	Pope Marcellus II, 1555; Pope Paul IV, 1555–1559

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
Titian, Philip II		Collegio Romano fd.; Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Commentarium de Republic Emendenda Libri Quinque; University of Lima, Peru, est.; d. Joachim Watt (Vadianus)	1551
Titian, Self-Portrait		Marcin Kromer, De Origine et Rebus Gestis Polonorum Libri XXX	1552
d. Lucas Cranach the Elder; Titian, Danaë		University of Mexico est.; d. François Rabelais	1553
Arezzeria Medicea fd. (to produce tapestries); Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed built in Moscow, 1554–1556; d. Sebastiano Serlio; Giorgio Vasari appointed court architect and painter in Florence		d. Gaspara Stampa	1554
Tintoretto, St. George and the Dragon		François Billon, Le fort inexpugnable de l'honneur du sexe femenin; Johannes Magnus, Historia de Omnibus Gothorum Sueonumque Regibus; Olaus Magnus, Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus; Johannes Sleidanus, De Statu Religionis et Republicae Carlo Quinto Caesare Commentarii; d. Johannes Sleidanus	1555

DATE	POLITICS AND SOCIETY	RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY	SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1556	Ivan IV conquers Astrakhan; Ferdinand I (HRE), 1556–1564; Philip II (Spain) 1556–1598	Thomas Cranmer executed; d. Ignatius of Loyola; Peresopnytsia Gospel (Church Slavonic/Ukrainian), 1556–1561
1557	Livonian War, 1557–1583; Sebastian I (Portugal), 1557–1578	New Testament of Geneva Bible; Serbian patriarchate restored at Peć by Ottomans
1558	Elizabeth I (England), 1558–1603		Giambattista della Porta, Magiae Naturalis
1559	Francis II (France), 1559–1560, with Catherine de Médicis as regent, 1559–1589; Tr. of Cateau-Cambrésis ends Habsburg-Valois (Italian) Wars; Frederick II (Denmark and Norway), 1559–1588	Calvinist Genevan Academy fd.; Pope Pius IV, 1559–1565; Index of Prohibited Books issued; Sigismund II Augustus of Poland grants religious liberty to Prussian towns
1560	d. Andrea Doria; Charles IX (France), 1560–1574; John Sigismund, rival to Habsburgs as king of Hungary, 1540–1570; Eric XIV (Sweden), 1560–1568; Michel de L'Hôpital becomes chancellor of France, 1560–1568	Complete Geneva Bible (English translation); d. Melchio Cano; d. Philipp Melanchthon; Scottish parliament introduces Presbyterian Confession of Faith, inspired by John Knox
1561	Philip II moves Spanish court to Madrid; Livonian Order secularized and territory granted to Poland	Colloquy of Poissy; d. Menno Simons

ART AND ARCHITECTURE	DRAMA AND MUSIC	LITERATURE AND SCHOLARSHIP	DATE
d. Lorenzo Lotto		d. Pietro Aretino; Matthias Falcius Illyricius, Catalogus Testium Veritatis; d. Tinódi Lantos; John Ponet, A Short Treatise of Politic Power	1556
Michelangelo Buonarroti works on dome of St. Peter's in Rome, 1557–1561; d. Jacopo da Pontormo		Stationers' Company chartered in England to issue licenses to print; d. Gianfrancesco Straparola	1557
		Christopher Goodman, How Superior Powers Ought to Be Obeyed; Marguerite de Navarre, Heptameron, 1558–1559; Mikołaj Rej, Proper Likeness of the Life of the Honorable Man; d. Julius Caesar Scaliger	1558
Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Battle of Carnival and Lent		Jacques Amyot's translation popularizes Plutarch's Lives; d. Robert Estienne; University of Geneva fd.	1559
Galleria degli Uffizi built in Florence, 1560–1580