George Washington

French and Indian War brings trials and triumphs

George Washington was born and raised in a wealthy family of Virginia planters. Born on February 22, 1732, he was the oldest son of Augustine Washington, a plantation owner with significant land holdings, and his second wife, Mary Ball. Washington's father died when he was eleven years old. He spent his teen years living with his mother and other relatives, including a half-brother who lived at Mount Vernon, a prosperous family farm.

In 1749, Washington was named county surveyor, a position that called for him to travel deep into forests, meadows, and other sparcely populated areas to measure property boundaries. In 1752, he was named a major in the Virginia militia. One year later, the lieutenant governor of the Virginia colony, Robert Dinwiddie (1693-1770; see box in chapter 2), selected Washington for an important mission that would take him deep into the Ohio Country.

Over the previous few years, ownership of the Ohio Country region of North America had severely strained relations between the European powers of Great Britain and France. Both countries had already established large colonies (permanent settlements of citizens who maintain ties to the mother country) throughout the eastern half of the continent. The British colonies, known as America, stretched along the Atlantic Ocean from present-day Maine to Georgia. The French colonies, known as New France, included eastern Canada, parts of the Great Lakes region, and the Mississippi River basin. Both the British and French hoped to expand their land holdings into the Ohio Country, which lay between their colonies. This region offered access to valuable natural resources and important river travel routes. But the Ohio Country was controlled by the Iroquois Confederacy, a powerful alliance of six Indian (Native American) nations who had lived on the land for generations. When the influence of the Iroquois Confederacy began to decline in the mid-1700s, the British and French began maneuvering to claim the region for themselves.

Washington's mission was to travel through the vast wilderness of the Ohio Valley and tell French officials that they were trespassing on British land. Washington and a small band of soldiers set out for the Ohio Country in October 1753. Braving cold weather and deep forests that lacked trails, Washington delivered his message to the French, who were building a number of forts in the region. But the French rejected Britain's claim that it owned the land, and Washington barely survived the dangerous winter journey back to Virginia. The following year, Washington's widely published account of his experiences in the wilderness (see box in chapter 2) made him famous throughout the colonies.

Washington's second campaign into the Ohio Country

In 1754, Washington was promoted to lieutenant colonel and sent back into the Ohio Country with two hundred soldiers. This expedition was not successful, however. His army was too small to seize Fort Duquesne, a French stronghold located on the banks of the Ohio River. He also clashed with French troops near an area called Red Stone Fort on May 28. Washington's force won the skirmish and captured several French soldiers, including a young officer named Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville (1718- 1754). But an Indian chief named Tanaghrisson (?-1754; see box in chapter 3), who had helped Washington track the French, murdered Jumonville without warning. Tanaghrisson's warriors then turned on several other French prisoners and killed them. Washington was shocked by the sudden turn of events. He set out for home with his army, but French troops based at Fort Duquesne gave chase, joined by their Indian allies. The French surrounded Washington's exhausted troops at a makeshift outpost called Fort Necessity. But since war had not formally been declared between France and Great Britain, the French commander was not sure that he could take Washington and his men prisoner. He eventually decided to let them go after Washington signed a document in which he accepted responsibility for the death of Jumonville.

A disheartened Washington and his troops returned to Virginia. But as it turned out, his clashes with the French—and his admission that Jumonville had been killed while in his custody—brought the simmering hostilities between France and Great Britain to a boil. In 1755, a British effort to push the French out of the Ohio Country ended in humiliating defeat, and one year later the two nations formally declared war against one another for control of North America.

Washington had served as a military aide to General Edward Braddock (1695-1755; see entry) on the disastrous British military campaign of 1755. In fact, he was one of the few British and colonial officers to escape without injury, despite his courageous action during the fighting. But after the French and Indian War formally erupted in 1756, he participated in no more assaults against the French. Instead, he was charged with helping English frontier settlements improve their defenses against Indian attacks.

One of Virginia's leading citizens

In 1758, Washington was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses (a representative body made up of Virginia colonists but under the authority of British rule). For the remainder of the French and Indian War, he divided his time between legislative duties, service as a county judge, and supervision of the large family farms he owned. On January 6, 1759, he married a widow named Martha Dandridge Custis, and settled down with her on the family estate at Mount Vernon.

From 1760 to 1775, Washington tirelessly tended his many farm operations, but he also remained one of the colonies' most visible legislators. During this period, he and many other Americans became very angry about British policies toward the colonies. Washington and countless other colonists believed they needed to be independent from Great Britain in order to create a free and democratic society. In 1775, the differences between the British and the Americans finally erupted into war. America's First Continental Congress—a group of representatives from all of the colonies—unanimously selected Washington to command the colonies in their bid to gain independence. The Virginian was chosen not only because of his reputation for bravery and honesty, but also because of his knowledge of the British military. In addition, Washington's southern background helped address the concerns of some Americans that the northern colonies of New England were pushing all the colonies into war.

Commander of the colonial army

When Washington agreed to lead the colonial army, he privately wondered if he was up to the task. After all, he not only had to create, train, and outfit an army within a matter of months, but he also had to make it effective enough to stand against British military forces that ranked as the most powerful in the world.

The first few years of the Revolutionary War (1775- 83) against the British were very difficult for Washington and his army. Hampered by serious supply shortages, officers with limited experience, and American colonists who wished to remain part of the British Empire, the colonial forces barely survived. But Washington's troops developed a deep loyalty to their commander and their cause, and the Virginian gained a deep respect for his soldiers as well. In 1778, for example, as noted in The Writings of George Washington, he wrote that "to see men without clothes to cover their nakedness, without blankets to lay on, without shoes, by which their marches may be traced by the blood from their feet, and almost as often without provisions as with, marching through frost and snow … is a mark of patience and obedience which … can scarce be paralleled."

As the War for Independence progressed, Washington directed the American war effort with mixed success. In six of the nine battles in which he personally fought, his forces either lost or could claim no better than a draw. But Washington also delivered major victories over the British at Trenton, Harlem Heights, and Yorktown, and he captured Boston from the British when he threatened to hammer it with cannons. These triumphs convinced foreign countries—such as France—to provide badly needed assistance to the American cause. In addition, Washington refused to steal supplies or take advantage of local communities, no matter how desperate his situation became. By conducting the war in this way, he kept the support of the American people throughout the long conflict.

In 1783, Great Britain finally gave up on its grim struggle to keep the American colonies loyal to the British Crown. The colonies were now free to create their own government, which Washington hoped would be formed with an eye toward ensuring that "our lives, liberties and properties shall be preserved."

On December 23, 1783, Washington resigned his position as commander of America's armed forces and headed home to Mount Vernon. He arrived at his farm on Christmas Eve, grateful to return to the life of a farmer. But before long, the newly formed nation he had helped create called on him once again.

First president of the United States

In 1787, leading citizens from across the United States gathered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at a Constitutional Convention. This meeting produced the Constitution of the United States—still the cornerstone of America's legal system—and outlined the type of government under which Americans would live. At this same meeting, the delegates unanimously selected Washington to be the first president of the United States.

Washington was inaugurated as president of the United States of America in New York City on April 30, 1789. He knew that his actions and behavior would shape the country—and the role of the presidency—for generations to come. With this in mind, he paid special attention to behaving in an honorable and truthful fashion at all times. As noted in The Writings of George Washington, the president declared, "I hope I shall always possess firmness and virtue enough to maintain the character of an honest man, as well as prove that I am [an honest man]."

In 1790, Washington came down with pneumonia. As he fought against the illness, the entire nation expressed concern that their fragile nation might fall apart if he died. After all, no other figure was as universally loved and respected as this Revolutionary War hero. "You cannot conceive the public alarm [at his sickness]," wrote Washington's secretary of state, Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), to a friend. "It proves how much depends on his life."

Washington recovered, and during his first four years in office he oversaw many significant accomplishments. He established a philosophy of strong national government, helped create the federal court system, and oversaw the development of a monetary system that soon made the United States an international economic power.

Washington wanted to retire to his farm at Mount Vernon after concluding his first four-year term. But the country's leading legislators and political leaders begged him to reconsider. They recognized that the United States was still in a fragile state. Most lawmakers and citizens had divided into separate political camps that wanted to take the country in different directions. Many Americans worried that without Washington's leadership, the bitter disputes between the political parties might tear apart the country.

Washington reluctantly agreed to a second term, and in 1792, he was unanimously reelected. His second four-year term was a difficult one in several respects. In 1794, he was forced to use military power to end the so-called Whiskey Rebellion—a protest by farmers against a federal tax on whiskey. In addition, he was forced to devote much of his attention to diplomatic maneuvers to avoid being dragged into another war that had flared up between France and Great Britain. Washington strongly believed that the United States, which was still struggling to establish itself, could not afford to be drawn into an expensive war.

As the conclusion of Washington's second term drew near, the nation's first president opted against running for a third time. So in March 1797, Washington's presidential tenure ended, and he peacefully handed over the office to John Adams (1735-1826), who had been Washington's vice president for both terms. Washington went home to Mount Vernon, where he resumed the life of a wealthy farmer. In 1798, the threat of a French invasion nearly returned Washington to the role of general of the American army. But the United States and France settled their differences without violence, and Washington remained in Virginia.

On December 14, 1799, George Washington died from a throat infection that struck him down with stunning suddenness. News of his death shocked the United States and the rest of the world. By this time, the country that he had helped bring into existence was able to survive the blow. But the loss of Washington, who, by now, was known throughout the United States as "the father of our country," still prompted heartfelt tributes and testimonials in cities and villages across America.

For More Information

Alden, John R. George Washington: A Biography. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984. Reprint, New York: Wings Books, 1995.

Encyclopedia of World Biography. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center .Detroit: Gale, 2002.

Fitzpatrick, John C., ed. The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745-1799. 39 vols. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Office, 1931-44. Reprint, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1970.

Jones, Robert F. George Washington. Rev. ed. New York: Fordham University Press, 1986.

Marrin, Albert. George Washington and the Founding of a Nation. New York:Dutton Children's Books, 2001.

McClung, Robert M. Young George Washington and the French and Indian War, 1753-1758. North Haven, CT: Linnet Books, 2002.

Meltzer, Milton. George Washington and the Birth of Our Nation. New York:F. Watts, 1986.

Randall, Willard S. George Washington: A Life. New York: Henry Holt &Co., 1997.

Spalding, Matthew, and Patrick J. Garrity. A Sacred Union of Citizens: George Washington's Farewell Address and the American Character. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1996.

Wall, Charles Cecil. George Washington, Citizen-Soldier. Charlottesville:University Press of Virginia, 1980.