Astronaut

An astronaut is a person trained to perform a specific task on a craft designed and intended to travel beyond Earth's atmosphere. The term "astronaut" derives from the Greek words meaning "space sailor." The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) uses the term to designate all persons who have been launched as crew members aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit and beyond. The term is also used by NASA to designate everyone selected to join the corps of NASA astronauts, whether they have been in space or not.

The Past

Between April 9, 1959, when the first seven U.S. astronauts were presented at a press conference in Washington, DC, and 1978, a total of 73 men were selected as astronauts by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Of these individuals, 43 flew in the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab programs. In 1978, 35 new astronaut candidates were selected for the Space Shuttle program, including six women. Since then, candidates have been recruited continuously, with selection occurring about every two years.

NASA selected the first group of astronauts in 1959. The original "Mercury seven" astronauts were all military test pilots with at least 1,500 hours of flight time. From an initial group of 508 men, 32 pilots were selected for further testing. These men were put through strenuous physiological and psychiatric examinations, reducing the number of potential candidates to 18. Finally, seven men were selected as America's first astronauts.

Each of the original astronauts flew in Project Mercury except Donald Slayton, who was grounded for medical reasons. Sixteen years later, Slayton finally got his chance to go into space when he was selected as an American crew member of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, the world's first international manned space flight.

Nine more astronauts were selected in September 1962. Two were civilian test pilots and seven were military test pilots. A third group of 14 military and civilian test pilots was selected in October 1963.

By 1964, the emphasis on test pilots had shifted, and NASA began looking more closely at academic qualifications. In October of 1964, over 400 applications were reviewed from individuals who met minimum physical requirements and also had a doctorate or equivalent experience in the natural sciences, medicine, or engineering. From a pool of more than 400 applicants, six were selected in June 1965 as the first scientist-astronauts. Only one—Harrison H. Schmitt, a geologist—flew to the Moon. Three other scientist-astronauts orbited in Skylab, the space laboratory.

During the remainder of the 1960s and early 1970s, several more groups of pilot astronauts and scientist-astronauts were recruited. A fifth group of 19 more test pilots was named in April 1966, followed by a sixth group of 11 scientists in August 1967. A seventh group of seven astronauts was transferred to NASA in August 1969 from the U.S. Air Force after its Manned Orbiting Laboratory program was halted.

The concept of scientist-astronauts was expanded for the space shuttle program. A new category of astronaut was added, the mission specialist. The first group of astronaut candidates for the new space shuttle program was selected in January 1978. In July of 1978, the 35 candidates began a rigorous training and evaluation period at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas to qualify for subsequent assignment for future space shuttle flight crews. This group of 20 mission specialist astronauts and 15 pilot astronauts completed training and went from astronaut candidate status to astronaut (active status) in August 1979. Six of the 35 were women and four were minorities. Ten more groups of pilots and mission specialists have been added to the astronaut corps since 1979.

Since 1978, several additional groups have been selected with a mix of pilots and mission specialists. From 1959 through 2001, well over 300 people served as U.S. astronauts. There are currently over 100 astronauts actively serving in various capacities and an additional 16 astronaut candidates in training in the class of 2000 (Group 18). Over 100 astronauts have retired, resigned or been reassigned. Several former astronauts have entered politics. One former astronaut, John Glenn, served as a United States senator. Twenty-five astronauts are deceased.

Women in Space. To date, only 37 women have flown in space. This includes 29 Americans, three Russians, and five women from other nations. Some space experts considered using women astronauts from the very beginning. Women are generally smaller in stature and lighter in weight, so they would have had less difficulty fitting into the cramped Mercury capsule, which would have required less propellant mass to make orbit. The idea was considered seriously enough that initial testing was started. Ever political, the U.S. military knew that the Soviets had included women in their astronaut corps, and if the United States wanted to be the first to put a woman into space, it had to act quickly.

The result was the Mercury 13 program. Thirteen women pilots were originally selected: Myrtle "K." Cagle, Jerrie Cobb, Jan Dietrich, Marion Dietrich, Wally Funk, Jane Hart, Jean Hixson, Gene Nora Jessen, Irene Leverton, Sarah Ratley, Bernice "Bea" Steadman, Jerri Truhill, and Rhea Woltman. Cobb, Funk, and Woltman took a second series of fitness tests. Cobb and Funk went through a third stage of testing. Cobb rated in the top two percent of both men and women tested. However, NASA subsequently decided that astronauts had to be jet pilots and women, at that time, were not allowed to pilot jets, military or civilian. So the Mercury 13 program was disbanded and cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova became the first

woman in space in 1963. Two decades passed before Sally Ride would become the first American woman in space.

The Present

The goals of NASA for the twenty-first century include a continuing human presence in space. The International Space Station is designed and intended for long-term human occupation and may serve as a test platform for further exploration of space by humans, including trips to the Moon and Mars.

As of 2001, the crew of a space shuttle includes a commander, a pilot, and one or more mission specialists. The commander, pilot, and at least one mission specialist are selected from among NASA astronauts. The other crew position is usually a "payload specialist." Payload specialists may be cosmonauts or astronauts designated by other nations, individuals selected by a company flying a commercial payload aboard the spacecraft, or a person selected through some other formal selection process. They are scientists or engineers selected by their employer or country for their expertise in conducting a specific experiment or commercial venture on a space shuttle mission. Payload specialists are trained by NASA and are listed as members of the shuttle crew.

Pilot astronauts are trained to serve as both space shuttle commanders and pilots. The space flight commander has overall responsibility for the vehicle, crew, mission success, and safety of flight. The pilot's primary responsibility is controlling and operating the vehicle. The pilot may also assist in the deployment and retrieval of satellites using the robot arm.

Mission specialists have overall responsibility for the shuttle systems, crew activity planning, consumables usage, and payload operations. If the payload includes scientific experiments, these may be part of the mission specialist's responsibility or this responsibility may be shared with the payload specialist. One of the most important responsibilities of mission specialists is extravehicular activities (EVAs).

Astronaut Training. After an applicant is accepted into the astronaut program, he or she becomes an astronaut candidate. Astronaut candidates train at NASA's Johnson Space Center (JSC). While there, they attend classes on shuttle systems, and also study basic science and technology, including the mathematics of space flight, geology, meteorology, guidance systems and navigation, oceanography, orbital dynamics, astronomy, physics, and materials processing. Astronaut candidates are also trained in both land and sea survival techniques. Astronaut candidates are required to be certified on scuba gear because some of the training takes place in a large tank of water at the JSC. The tank provides neutral buoyancy, which simulates the freefall conditions of space flight.

The first experiences with free-fall (NASA prefers the term microgravity) can be disconcerting and sometimes provoke extreme nausea. So astronaut candidates receive intensive training in a specially designed and equipped military KC-135 jet cargo plane (nicknamed the "Vomit Comet"). By launching itself into a parabolic arc, the aircraft can create free-fall conditions in its padded cargo bay for about 20 seconds. This maneuver can be repeated as many as 40 times during a training flight.

Pilot astronauts are also required to maintain flying proficiency by flying at least 15 hours per month. NASA has a small fleet of two-seat T-38 jets that the astronauts can use. NASA also has a fleet of four Shuttle Training Aircraft. These are Gulfstream II business jets that can be set up to perform like the Orbiter during landing.

The heart of the training program for candidate astronauts is a set of simulators and mock-ups of shuttle systems. Candidates begin with the single systems trainer where astronauts learn about the shuttle systems. Then candidates move to the more complex Shuttle Mission Simulators where they receive training in all aspects of shuttle vehicle systems and tasks. Several other simulators and mock-ups can be used to train the candidates in operating the remote arm; getting into or out of the orbiter hatches including emergency exits, launches, and landings; and working with mission control.

The current class of astronaut candidates (Group 18) includes 13 men and three women. Eleven of the class of 2000 are active military personnel. Ten of the group are training as mission specialists and the remainder as pilots. All have advanced academic degrees. Six hold the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and one is a medical doctor. Two of the civilian mission specialist candidates are certified private pilots.

The Future

The United States has partnered with Japan, Canada, Russia, and the European Space Agency to build and operate the human-tended International Space Station. Using the International Space Station as a starting point, humans may eventually return to the Moon and travel to Mars. There will be a continuing need for highly trained professional astronauts from all the nations in the partnership as well as other nations. If NASA's plans and goals come to fruition, space exploration and the astronaut corps will become more diverse and international.

NASA currently accepts applications for the Astronaut Candidate Program at any time. Classes are formed from the existing pool of applicants whenever need arises. This usually works out to be every two years. Candidates are selected for both pilot and mission specialist categories. Both civilian and military personnel are eligible for either category. However, the extensive flight experience in high-performance aircraft required of pilot candidates eliminates most civilians from consideration. Civilians may apply directly to NASA at any time. Military personnel apply through their service branch.

Mission specialists and pilot astronaut candidates must have a minimum of a bachelor's degree from an accredited institution in engineering, biological science, physical science, or mathematics. Competition is intense, however, so an applicant with only the minimum requirement is not likely to be selected. Applicants for the position of mission specialist must have, in addition to the education requirements, at least three years of professional experience. In reality, an advanced degree and several years of professional experience are necessary to be considered for candidacy. Mission specialists must be physically fit and be able to pass a physical examination. Their height must be between 58.5 and 76 inches.

Pilot astronaut applicants must meet several additional requirements including at least 1,000 hours as pilot-in-command time in jet aircraft; flight test experience, the ability to pass a tougher physical exam, and height between 64 and 76 inches.

Increasing Diversity Among Astronauts. Sally Ride became the first American woman in space in 1983. The twenty-first century holds out the promise of greater participation by women and minorities in space exploration. On July 23, 1999, when STS-93 lifted off, Air Force Colonel Eileen Collins became the first woman to command a space mission. Currently, 25 percent of NASA astronauts are women. NASA is currently launching a program to encourage more women and minority Air Force ROTC cadets to consider astronaut training. The current corps of astronauts reflects the diversity of American culture.

Age may also no longer be the limiting factor it once was. When Alan Shepard blasted off in a Mercury rocket as the first American in space, he had everything an astronaut was supposed to have. He had perfect eyesight, he was in top physical condition, and he had many hours of experience as a test pilot. He was also 37 years old, just three years under the cut-off age for astronauts. The late-twentieth-and early twenty-first-century astronaut corps looks quite different. When Story Musgrove blasted off in 1996, he was a balding ex-marine with six academic degrees. At 61, he was also the oldest person up to that time to have ventured into space. The astronaut corps includes six astronauts who are 50 years or older. The average age is 42, two years over the cut-off age faced by Alan Shepard.

There is no single person who can be chosen to represent the current astronaut corps, although Kalpana Chawla, a mission specialist, comes close. She was born in Karnal, India, and attended college in India before moving to the United States and graduating from the University of Texas with a master of science degree in aerospace engineering. She then graduated from the University of Colorado in 1988 with a doctorate of philosophy in aerospace engineering. Chawla is a certified pilot, holding a flight instructor's certificate, in addition to a commercial pilot's license for single and multi-engine land and sea planes.

Or perhaps Michael P. Anderson (Lieutenant Colonel USAF) can represent the current astronaut corps. He was born in Plattsburgh, New York and graduated from high school in Cheney, Washington. Anderson received a bachelor of science degree in physics and astronomy from the University of Washington and a master of science degree in physics from Creighton University in 1990.

As society changes, the astronaut corps will continue to become more diverse. The astronaut corps began with seven white males, all test pilots. In the early twenty-first century, the active astronaut corps is older and more diverse, including many women and minorities. Although moderate physical fitness is still a requirement, the emphasis is on advanced technical degrees and problem-solving ability. A doctorate in mathematics would be a good first step toward a career as an astronaut.

Astronaut

The Past

The Present

The Future

Bibliography

THE MERCURY SEVEN

SPACE SHUTTLE CHALLENGER