A

Austria

During the Renaissance, Austria was not a single nation, but an assortment of lands in central Europe. It included parts of modern Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, and Italy. Austria's rulers, the HABSBURGS, were major patrons* of the arts during the Renaissance. Artists, musicians, and scholars flocked to Austria from many parts of Europe, bringing with them Renaissance art and ideas.

POLITICS AND RELIGION

The Habsburg family, a powerful dynasty, ruled Austria for most of the Renaissance. Although the greater part of the lands that made up Austria came under the family's control in the 1200s and 1300s, few Habsburg rulers had power over all these lands at the same time. The Habsburgs typically divided their territory among their sons. They did not adopt the custom of primogeniture—which held that the eldest son should inherit all the family's property—until the mid-1600s. Even then, the Habsburgs did not always follow this practice strictly.

Rudolf I, the first Habsburg to rule Austria, was also a German king and Holy Roman Emperor* during the late 1200s. Many of his descendants held those titles as well, and others tried hard to acquire them. The Habsburgs occupied the position of Holy Roman Emperor almost without interruption from the mid-1400s until 1806, when the empire ceased to exist. By the mid-1500s the family also came to rule Spain, the Netherlands, and southern Italy.

Like other European rulers, the Austrian Habsburgs faced threats to their control over their lands. Princes, minor nobles, and local leaders all sought to increase their own power and influence at the expense of the ruling family. At the same time, the Protestant Reformation* created religious tensions within Austria. Most of the lands that made up Austria were divided along religious lines. For this reason, the Austrian Habsburgs adopted policies that aimed for a balance between the two religions.

Because the rulers of Austria controlled so much of Europe, Austria did not have a distinct national identity. In fact, modern scholars have trouble identifying an exact dividing line between Austria and Germany.

Ruling such a diverse empire proved difficult and costly, and the Austrian Habsburgs were constantly in need of more money. The search for cash was a driving force in their political activity.

CULTURE

Austria shared strong cultural ties with northern Germany. German artists, writers, and scholars played a significant role in the development of Renaissance culture in Austria. At the same time, Austrian arts and culture strongly influenced the German Renaissance. Cultural currents also flowed into Austria from places as diverse as Italy, Hungary, and the Netherlands.

Learning and Literature. Arriving in VIENNA in 1490, Conrad CELTIS led the field of German writers and humanists* who worked in Austria. Vienna's university had already built up an excellent reputation in the fields of science and mathematics. Celtis broadened its curriculum by teaching poetry and rhetoric*, and Emperor MAXIMILIAN I created a professorship in these fields just for him. Celtis later established a college of poetry and mathematics apart from the university to promote humanist learning.

The works of Celtis and his successors added to the knowledge of German history and enriched German culture. They included editions of early German poetry and literature and histories of both Germany and Austria. Humanists from other countries also contributed. The Italian Enea Silvio Piccolomini (1405–1464), who later became Pope PIUS II, served the Habsburg family as a poet and secretary during the 1440s and 1450s. He wrote a history of Austria that includes a vivid description of Vienna.

Music and Theater. The Habsburgs were early and eager patrons of music, bringing to Austria composers from the music centers of Europe. Composers from the Netherlands introduced many of the latest developments, including new forms such as OPERA, a shift toward instrumental music, and new techniques such as dissonance*. Italian musicians and composers also played leading roles at the Habsburg court and helped establish Austria's reputation as a musical center.

The theater became an important element in Austrian culture as well. In Vienna, students of Conrad Celtis staged comedies by ancient Roman playwrights and by Celtis himself. Later, Catholic and Protestant writers used the theater to promote their religious and theological* ideas. Their shows often featured costumes, stage effects, and music. Even plays presented in Latin attracted audiences that numbered in the thousands.

Art and Architecture. Both the Catholic Habsburgs and the Protestant nobles of Austria supported the arts. Many German artists, such as Albrecht DÜRER and Albrecht Altdorfer, worked for the Habsburgs. In addition, the Habsburgs promoted the arts in other parts of their realm, such as BOHEMIA.

Emperor Maximilian I was the first Habsburg ruler to support the major artists of northern Europe. He commissioned several works that focused on his family's role in history, including two huge woodcuts* produced by German artists between 1516 and 1518. Maximilian also used the new technology of printing to illustrate his own works of literature with woodcuts from famous artists.

Maximilian's most ambitious artistic project was the monument he requested to decorate his own tomb. Many of the leading artists of the day contributed to the design, which featured plans for over 200 larger- than-life bronze statues of famous historical and mythical figures. Some of these statues portrayed Habsburgs of previous generations. Others were legendary rulers, such as King Arthur and the French king Clovis, representing the virtues of kingship. Work on the monument began in 1502 and continued until 1585. However, the project was often suspended for lack of funds, and only a fraction of the planned statues were ever completed.

During the 1400s and 1500s, a shortage of money, and the threat of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE on Austria's eastern border, limited construction of elaborate palaces or public buildings. However, a few remarkable architectural projects date back to this period. Maximilian's grandson FERDINAND I commissioned the striking palace called Belvedere in the city of PRAGUE. Constructed between 1534 and 1563, it is a beautiful example of architecture in the Italian style.

Two other notable Austrian castles are Schloss Porcia (Porcia Castle) and Schloss Schallaburg, both built for Austrian nobles. Completed in the 1590s, Schloss Porcia in the city of Spittal an der Drau is a square structure with two round towers. Its most notable feature is its three-story courtyard decorated with elaborate columns, sculptures, and scenes from classical* mythology. Schloss Schallaburg, in Lower Austria, dates back to the Middle Ages. However, builders remodeled it between 1572 and 1600. It has a similar courtyard featuring terra-cotta ornaments in the classical style.

(See also Architecture; Art in Central Europe; Art in Germany; Drama; German Language and Literature; Holy Roman Empire; Margaret of Austria; Music; Printing and Publishing.)

* patron

supporter or financial sponsor of an artist or writer

* Holy Roman Emperor

ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, a political body in central Europe composed of several states that existed until 1806

* Protestant Reformation

religious movement that began in the 1500s as a protest against certain practices of the Roman Catholic Church and eventually led to the establishment of a variety of Protestant churches

Frederick's Secret Code?

During the reign of Frederick III (1440–1493), the initials AEIOU appeared in the archways of many castles, cathedrals, and other public buildings. Scholars have suggested over 300 different possible meanings for these letters, usually assuming that A stood for Austria. The most popular interpretation is "Austria erit in orbe ultima," a Latin phrase meaning "Austria will outlive all others on Earth." It is not clear, however, whether this optimistic view referred to the land and the people of Austria, or to the dynasty that controlled it.

* humanist

Renaissance expert in the humanities (the languages, literature, history, and speech and writing techniques of ancient Greece and Rome)

* rhetoric

art of speaking or writing effectively

* dissonance

musical technique of combining different tones to produce harsh sounds that create a feeling of tension

* theological

relating to theology, the study of the nature of God and of religion

* woodcut

print made from a block of wood with an image carved into it

* classical

in the tradition of ancient Greece and Rome