Diplomacy

During the Renaissance, diplomacy—the practice of conducting relations between nations—developed into a permanent activity of government. European rulers began to send ambassadors to live in foreign lands to gather information and to represent their countries. In the Middle Ages, by contrast, rulers usually sent representatives to other states for short periods of time to accomplish specific tasks.

The Rise of Diplomacy. Resident ambassadors first appeared in Italy. The growth of Italian city-states created a need for governments to communicate with their allies and to gather information about their rivals. By the 1450s the dukes of Milan had established embassies in Naples, Genoa, Rome, and Venice. Various Italian city-states followed Milan's example and set up diplomatic posts in other states. Florence appointed an ambassador to France in 1474.

This new focus on diplomacy slowly spread to northern Europe. Various conflicts involving Spain, France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire* led nations to see the usefulness of skillful diplomats. In the late 1480s Spain established embassies in several northern European countries, and by 1547 the king of France had ten resident ambassadors distributed across the continent.

In the 1560s, religious conflicts led Catholic and Protestant states to withdraw their ambassadors from each other's courts. Many of these countries did not reestablish diplomatic relations until the early 1600s. However, numerous states in eastern Europe, Scandinavia, and the OTTOMAN EMPIRE did not use resident diplomats during the Renaissance.

Diplomatic Qualifications and Rank. Governments looked for certain skills in the individuals they appointed as resident ambassadors. The most important qualifications were a knowledge of Roman law and a humanist* education. Latin was the common language of diplomacy, but ambassadors also used vernacular* languages to communicate with their home governments. Many Renaissance humanists were skilled at languages and rhetoric* and served as diplomats.

Renaissance diplomats held various ranks. The two lowest-ranking officials were nuncios, who delivered prepared messages, and procurators, who could carry out certain negotiations. Ambassadors and legates had more power; they could speak and negotiate on behalf of major rulers. In the 1500s, only individuals with the title majesty had the authority to appoint ambassadors.

The relative status of different diplomats also depended on the power of the states they represented. In Catholic countries, nuncios representing the pope received greater respect than nuncios of other rulers. In the early 1500s Pope JULIUS II issued an order recognizing the superiority of the Holy Roman Emperor over the rulers of other states, and this distinction extended to representatives of the emperor.

In addition to resident ambassadors, Renaissance rulers sent special envoys* to represent them at important public occasions, such as the coronation of a monarch or the signing of a treaty. These envoys were usually men of great rank, often nobles. Their rich clothing, gold chains, and other signs of wealth reflected both their own status and the importance of their mission. Rulers received the special envoys with elaborate ceremonies and hospitality, and often gave them generous gifts as a sign of courtesy and respect.

Over time the diplomatic service grew to include other professionals. Resident ambassadors often employed assistants who organized the embassy's papers and maintained the codes used in writing secret communications. By the mid-1500s, European rulers began to appoint secretaries of state to manage the activities of their embassies. Often chosen from the ranks of experienced diplomats, the secretary of state would prepare instructions for ambassadors, oversee negotiations, and supervise the gathering of information.

Working Conditions for Diplomats. One of the most important elements of diplomacy was communication between ambassadors and their home governments. Messages sent to and from embassies often took weeks to reach their destinations. Moreover, rival governments sometimes tried to intercept messengers, to discover the contents of letters and documents or to prevent them from getting through. To make sure documents reached their destinations, officials sometimes sent multiple copies by various routes.

For the most part, ambassadors did not receive regular pay but were given money for particular activities. As a result, many faced financial difficulties. Some rulers took steps to pay their representatives more regularly. Nevertheless, many diplomats complained about late payments and the high cost of living and carrying out their duties far from home.

Another important issue was providing security for diplomats, to protect them from arrest or ill treatment in foreign countries. Most governments granted resident ambassadors some basic rights. However, rulers did not hesitate to imprison an ambassador who committed a crime or other serious offense. Political writers urged diplomats to avoid dishonest behavior and deceitful practices. Yet they also acknowledged that the main responsibility of these officials was to defend and advance the interests of their countries.