A

France

The Renaissance was a time of great upheaval in France, marked by wars and religious conflict. Throughout the period a strong monarchy ruled the country, and powerful nobles and church leaders dominated French society. The economy was based on agriculture, with most of the population living in rural areas. Nevertheless, French cities and towns grew significantly, and the activities of merchants and explorers expanded beyond the nation's borders. Meanwhile, increased contact with other countries encouraged the development of Renaissance culture in France.

HISTORY

During the Renaissance a series of powerful monarchs from the VALOIS and BOURBON dynasties governed France. Notable rulers from this period include FRANCIS I, who promoted French Renaissance art and ideas in the early 1500s, and HENRY IV, who brought about a period of relative peace in the late 1500s. Although women of royal blood could not inherit the throne, several female members of the ruling family played influential roles as regents* or political advisers.

The Valois Dynasty. The Valois family ruled France from the late Middle Ages until 1589. Louis XI, who became king in 1461, helped break down the feudal* social structure by appointing people of relatively low rank to positions formerly held by members of the nobility. He also expanded the kingdom by gaining control of nearby lands. The death of Charles the Bold of BURGUNDY in 1477 allowed Louis to occupy Burgundy and Franche-Comté on France's eastern border and Artois on the north. The king was later forced to withdraw from Franche-Comté and Artois, but after the death of René, the duke of Anjou, he gained control of the provinces of Anjou and Maine on the west and Provence to the south.

When Louis XI died in 1483, his son Charles VIII inherited the throne. Because Charles was only about 13 years old, his older sister, Anne de Beaujeu, ruled as regent on his behalf. Between 1485 and 1488 opposition to Anne's regency erupted into civil war. In 1491 Charles took on the duties of the monarchy. Three years later, he marched into Italy to claim the kingdom of NAPLES, which had belonged to the dukes of Anjou. This mission failed, but Charles's invasion of Italy helped bring Italian Renaissance art and ideas to France.

Charles VIII died without heirs in 1498 and his cousin Louis XII took the throne. The new king gained control of MILAN and divided Naples with FERDINAND OF ARAGON, the king of Spain, who also had a claim to it. However, in the early 1500s a disagreement between France and Spain led to a conflict in which the French suffered defeat and withdrew from Naples.

In 1508 Louis XII joined the League of Cambrai, an alliance designed to stop the expansion of the republic of VENICE. Louis's troops forced the Venetians to give up some of their land, but Pope JULIUS II responded by forming the Holy League. The new alliance was established to drive the French out of Italy. The French king then tried to replace the pope at a church council. When this failed, Louis took military action and won a victory over the pope's army at Ravenna in 1512. However, the following year forces of the Holy League defeated the French, and Louis withdrew from Italy.

Religious and Political Rivalries. When Louis XII died in 1515, the throne passed to his cousin Francis I. The new king's reign (1515–1547) was troubled by religious conflict and international rivalries. Francis took a firm stand in defending the French Catholic church against the PROTESTANT REFORMATION. He also became involved in ongoing conflicts with HENRY VIII of England and CHARLES V, the Habsburg ruler of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire*. Despite Francis's opposition to Protestantism, he formed alliances with German Protestant princes against Charles V. He even reached an agreement with SÜLEYMAN I, the leader of the Ottoman Turks*, to challenge Charles in eastern Europe and the Mediterranean region.

At home, Francis actively encouraged art, architecture, and humanism*. He invited scholars and artists from Italy to work in France. He also undertook major projects, such as the renovation of the château of Fontainebleau near Paris in a style that incorporated many Renaissance elements.

Francis's son took the throne in 1547 as Henry II. The new king carried on his father's rivalries with England and the Habsburgs. He sent French troops to aid MARY STUART, queen of Scotland, against the English. Mary was the niece of the duke of Guise, a leading French nobleman. Henry also invaded Lorraine, in the western part of the Holy Roman Empire, and captured the towns of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Meanwhile, Henry's government was torn by intense rivalry among the MONTMORENCY, Guise, and Saint-André families. The Guise family gained prominence when Henry's eldest son, Francis, married Mary Stuart. The king died in 1559 while participating in a tournament celebrating the marriage of his daughter Elisabeth to PHILIP II of Spain.

Francis II was only 15 years old when his father died. Two of his wife's uncles from the Guise family assumed control of the government. These men, both fervent Catholics, pursued a policy of repressing Protestants, even executing some who took part in demonstrations. In 1560 a group of Protestants organized a plot to remove the young king from the influence of his advisers, but the plan failed. Months later, Francis died and his ten-year-old brother, Charles IX, became king. The boys' mother, CATHERINE DE MÉDICIS, stepped in as regent.

Catherine tried to provide freedom of worship for the French Protestants, who were known as Huguenots, but high-ranking members of the Montmorency, Guise, and Saint-André families opposed her efforts. In 1562 the duke of Guise and a group of his followers broke into a Protestant service and massacred more than 60 of the worshipers.

During the next several years the conflict over granting rights to Protestants led to a series of civil wars. In 1572 a marriage was arranged between Catherine's daughter, Margaret of Valois, and a Protestant prince, Henry of Navarre, to help unite the warring groups. However, as the wedding drew near tensions remained high. On St. Bartholomew's Day (August 24) the Protestant nobles who had gathered in Paris for the wedding were murdered. The killing of Protestants spread to other parts of the country and continued for several weeks. An estimated 2,000 Huguenots were killed in Paris, and a few thousand more in the rest of France. The deadly attacks heightened the religious tension engulfing the kingdom.

When Charles IX died in 1574, his brother Henry succeeded him. The new king, Henry III, attempted to calm the religious turmoil with a peace agreement granting favorable terms to the Protestants. However, the Catholic League, a group of Catholic nobles and others, forced him to revoke the agreement. Henry's court was troubled by political intrigues among his followers and rivalry between the powerful Guise and Bourbon families. Nevertheless, the king managed to introduce some government reforms and encourage an atmosphere of learning through the Palace Academy.

In 1584 the death of Henry III's younger brother left Henry of Navarre, a Protestant, next in line to the throne. The prospect of a Protestant monarch led members of the Catholic League to drive Henry III from Paris and attempt to depose* him. The league hoped to replace Henry with a ruler less sympathetic to the Protestants. In 1589 the king joined forces with Henry of Navarre and marched toward Paris. On the way, Henry III, the last ruler of the Valois dynasty, was assassinated by a supporter of the Catholic League.

The Bourbon Dynasty. Henry of Navarre, who became Henry IV in 1589, was the first Bourbon king of France. As a Protestant, he stepped into the midst of the country's religious conflict. Some Catholics refused to support him, while others put pressure on him to return to Catholicism. Meanwhile, many Protestants mistrusted the new king because he had promised to maintain the special privileges granted to the Catholic Church in France.

While the religious dispute smoldered, the Spanish invaded France from their stronghold in the Netherlands. Henry IV, an able military leader, managed to defend his territory while attempting to strengthen his political base in France. In 1593 he returned to Catholicism. During the next few years, the war with Spain continued and Spanish forces advanced into BRITTANY. Finally, in April 1598, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, a document that gave many rights to the Huguenots and relieved some of the religious tension. The following month Henry negotiated a treaty bringing the war with Spain to an end.

After decades of warfare and religious strife, the Edict of Nantes and the treaty with Spain ushered in a period of relative peace. Yet Henry IV still faced problems, including political plots, a tax revolt, and an uprising among the nobility. In foreign affairs, relations between France and Germany grew strained. In May 1610, while organizing an army to help the German Protestant princes fight the Habsburgs, Henry was assassinated by a fanatical follower of the former Catholic League.

Henry IV's nine-year-old son inherited the throne of France as Louis XIII. The boy's mother, MARIE DE MÉDICIS, ruled as regent. Although Marie's authority was repeatedly challenged, she managed to govern the kingdom and put down a series of revolts with help from her late husband's advisers. In 1617, however, one of Marie's principal advisers was killed, and Louis exiled his mother and established his own rule.

ECONOMY, GOVERNMENT, AND SOCIETY

The population of France rose dramatically from the late 1400s until about 1570 and then leveled out at about 19 million. The economy and government also expanded to meet the needs of the growing population. The nobility dominated French society, playing major roles in the government, the church, and the military under the leadership of the king.

Agriculture and Trade. During the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) between England and France, much farmland in France had been abandoned. After the war farmers returned to the land, and agricultural production revived. The typical estate, known as a seigneury, was divided into sections. The landowner planted crops on some of the land and rented the rest out to peasants. In addition to paying a fee for the right to work the land, peasants also had to pay taxes to the crown and make contributions to the church. In the early 1500s new laws allowed individuals to obtain loans to purchase land. As a result, pieces of property began to change hands more frequently. In southern France laws authorizing heirs to divide estates led to the creation of many small farms. Elsewhere, however, estates generally became larger. The countryside was dotted with villages, which served as centers of rural society.

Renaissance France also contained many towns and cities. These gradually expanded as a result of population growth and migration from rural areas. By the mid-1500s, Paris had about 250,000 inhabitants. Louis XI encouraged urban growth and economic activity by granting special privileges to towns and by establishing local trading fairs. Francis I expanded commercial opportunities by sponsoring French expeditions to the Americas in search of trade. During the late 1500s, civil wars in France brought urban growth to a temporary halt, but the process resumed again during the reign of Henry IV.

Government. During the Renaissance, the power of the French monarchs was held in check by various forces, including the national assembly, the high courts, and the church. The center of the government was the royal council, which made major policy decisions. It consisted of various advisers, including princes, cardinals, and other influential individuals. Assistants known as secretaries of the finances recorded decisions and prepared correspondence for the king's signature. These officials often married into each other's families, establishing a network that barred outsiders from gaining positions at court.

The Estates General, the national assembly, brought together representatives from the clergy, the nobility, and the towns. At meetings of the Estates General, the king consulted with his subjects and listened to their grievances. After the meetings, the royal council might enact needed measures. A number of provinces had their own assemblies, which negotiated taxes with the crown and controlled provincial finances.

At the top of the French judicial system was the high court of the Parlement of Paris. The court consisted of an upper chamber, staffed by 30 judges, and a lower chamber that dealt with minor cases and the preparation of lawsuits. A president and two deputies supervised the Parlement. There were also several provincial Parlements under the direct authority of the crown, as well as various local courts. The judicial system expanded greatly in the mid-1500s, partly because Francis I allowed qualified individuals to purchase offices and transfer them to their heirs.

The Military. Because of its involvement in numerous wars, France needed a strong and reliable army. The core of the army was a heavily armored cavalry, which had been created toward the end of the Hundred Years' War in the mid-1400s. The cavalry companies were made up of rural nobles commanded by provincial governors. During the religious wars, these troops often followed their commanders rather than the king.

In the 1400s, the French infantry consisted primarily of archers. Later, infantry troops used firearms and long, pointed spears. The French army included many hired soldiers from other countries, particularly Switzerland and Germany. In the early religious wars about one-third of France's 72,000 soldiers were foreigners.

The Church. Beginning in the early Middle Ages, the monarchy took an active role in the administration of the Catholic Church in France. In 1438 the French church gained the right to elect its own bishops, thus winning some independence from the king and the pope. However, under the Concordat of Bologna (1516), the monarchy regained the right to name bishops. Kings rewarded members of the nobility by nominating them for high church positions. Because there were many such positions in France, the crown wielded considerable power in church affairs. In addition, monarchs often seized church property to finance their campaigns in the religious wars.

The Nobility. Though few in number—less than 2 percent of the population—the French nobility possessed a great deal of power. It had a hierarchy*, with princes at the top, and lower levels that included dukes, marquesses, counts, viscounts, barons, chevaliers, and squires. During the Middle Ages, the ranks of the nobility were relatively fixed. In the 1500s, however, the upper ranks of society became more fluid, with some opportunities to advance in rank.

Families could become part of the nobility by paying a fee—called the franc-fief—and not engaging in commerce or manual labor for three generations. Individuals could also gain noble titles by purchasing a special license or by receiving a knighthood for extraordinary achievements in battle.

Members of the top ranks of the government received noble titles, which they could pass on to their heirs. The titles of middle-level officials did not become hereditary until they had been in the family for three generations. As the government expanded, more individuals were able to join the nobility. Nobles flocked to the royal court in search of sponsors and other benefits. They also sought to ensure their wealth and position by marrying their children to members of other noble families.

The power of the nobility in French government and society created problems for many monarchs. The upper nobility, in particular, continued to challenge royal leadership until the reign of Louis XIV in the late 1600s and early 1700s. Nevertheless, the authority of the French monarchy gradually increased during the Renaissance, leading to greater centralization, a stronger military force, and a growing sense of national unity.

(See also Aristocracy; Art in France; Drama, French; Dynastic Rivalry; French Language and Literature; Guise-Lorraine Family; Habsburg Dynasty; Wars of Religion.)

* regent

person who acts on behalf of a monarch who is too young or unable to rule

* feudal

relating to an economic and political system in which individuals gave services to a lord in return for protection and the use of the land

* Holy Roman Empire

political body in central Europe composed of several states; existed until 1806

* Ottoman Turks

Turkish followers of Islam who founded the Ottoman Empire in the 1300s; the empire eventually included large areas of eastern Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa

* humanism

Renaissance cultural movement promoting the study of the humanities (the languages, literature, and history of ancient Greece and Rome) as a guide to living

* depose

to remove from high office, often by force

French Monarchs, with dates of reign

Louis XI (1461–1483)
Charles VIII (1483–1498)
Louis XII (1498–1515)
Francis I (1515–1547)
Henry II (1547–1559)
Francis II (1559–1560)
Charles IX (1560–1574)
Henry III (1574–1589)
Henry IV (1589–1610)
Louis XIII (1610–1643)

* hierarchy

organization of a group into higher and lower levels