Habsburg Dynasty

Rising from obscure origins, the Habsburgs became the dominant political family of Europe during the Renaissance. Through a series of advantageous marriages, the family managed to overcome territorial and language boundaries and gained control of much of Europe and of vast tracts of land in the AMERICAS. The Habsburgs also played a significant role in the cultural life of the Renaissance through their patronage* of major artists, literary figures, and scientists.

The Rise of the Habsburgs. The reign of the house of Habsburg began in 1246, when the family took control of Austria. At first, the Habsburgs seemed to be just another noble family with ambitions to expand its territory by waging war and making favorable alliances though marriage. But they were more successful than others, winning the throne of the Holy Roman Empire* for Rudolf I (ruled 1273–1291) and his son Albert I (ruled 1298–1308).

Quarrels within the family, the ambitions of rival families, and the general political instability in Europe prevented the Habsburgs from regaining the imperial* throne until 1438, when Albert II seized power. Although Albert ruled for only about a year, he became the first of an unbroken line of Habsburg rulers that lasted until 1740.

Father and Son. Albert's cousin Duke Frederick of Styria succeeded him and ruled as Frederick III until 1493. During his reign, Frederick took several steps that strengthened the power and holdings of the Habsburg dynasty. He married Eleanor of Portugal, which allowed the Habsburgs to acquire that kingdom in the late 1500s. He also reached an agreement with Pope NICHOLAS V that gave the Holy Roman Emperor considerable authority over the appointment of church officials in Habsburg lands. Finally, he married his son, Maximilian, to Mary of Burgundy (daughter of the prosperous duke of BURGUNDY). He had less success in his role as Holy Roman Emperor, failing to establish a workable system of taxation in the empire and raiding the royal treasury. However, as a patron of the arts, he introduced humanist* learning to Germany.

One of the most remarkable princes to emerge during the Renaissance, Frederick's son MAXIMILIAN I (1459–1519) had studied astrology, music, carpentry, mining, hunting, weaponry, and other subjects in his youth. He spoke seven languages, which greatly helped him rule his multilingual* empire. Maximilian defended the Burgundian inheritance in battle against two French kings and became king of the Romans in 1486, joining his father in managing the Holy Roman Empire.

When Frederick died in 1493, Maximilian became the sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and head of the house of Habsburg. The new emperor faced many problems, including a fierce rivalry with France over Italy and threats to the empire's eastern frontier by the Ottoman Turks*. He dealt with the efforts of reformers to alter the political structure of the realm and with disagreements over taxes. To advance his interests in Italy, Maximilian married Bianca Maria Sforza, daughter of the duke of Milan, in 1494. He made an unsuccessful expedition to Italy, but because of opposition from the Venetians, failed to reach Rome for his imperial coronation in 1508.

On the positive side, Maximilian secured Austria by driving the Hungarians from Vienna. He also persuaded the king of BOHEMIA to pass the crowns of Bohemia and HUNGARY to the Habsburgs if he died without a male heir. Like his father, Maximilian supported the arts and literature. He employed such artists as Albrecht DÜRER for numerous projects, including illustrations for his own literary works.

World Empire. The grandson of Maximilian, CHARLES V held more than 60 royal and princely titles, including emperor, king of Castile and Aragon, and archduke of Austria. In addition to his titles, Charles inherited a multitude of problems. The Holy Roman Empire was facing a religious crisis sparked by Martin LUTHER, who called for church reform. Charles, a steadfast Roman Catholic, failed in his attempts to suppress Luther's movement and to eliminate Protestants from the empire. He did, however, manage to hold off the Ottoman Turks in central Europe and the French in Italy. Operating from Spain in 1535, he captured Tunis in North Africa. New rounds of fighting between the Valois, the French royal family, and the Habsburgs broke out in 1536 after the French king FRANCIS I forged an alliance with the Ottomans. These wars finally ended in 1544 when Francis signed the Peace of Crépy.

Under Charles's sponsorship, the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand MAGELLAN began his quest to sail around the world in 1519. Hernan Cortés completed his conquest of the Aztecs in Mexico (1521) and Francisco Pizarro vanquished the Inca in Peru (1533). Charles never fully realized the significance of his overseas possessions. He simply exploited* their resources and used them to enhance the image of Habsburg power. In the arts, Charles maintained the Habsburg tradition of patronage, supporting DÜRER and the great Italian painter TITIAN.

Dividing the Habsburg Inheritance. Wishing to keep the empire in the hands of one man, Charles announced in 1550 his intention to turn over the entire Habsburg inheritance to his talented son Philip. The plan received little support. To avoid the threat of civil war, Charles signed an agreement in 1551 that his brother FERDINAND I would succeed him as emperor. Ferdinand would be followed by Charles's son PHILIP II and then by Ferdinand's son MAXIMILIAN II. The arrangement pleased no one and led to suspicions that the Habsburgs intended to turn the elective emperorship into a hereditary monarchy. Worn out by conflict and troubled by illness, Charles turned over his imperial responsibilities to Ferdinand in 1555. The Netherlands, Spain, Italian lands, and the colonies went to Philip. Charles retired to his country house and died in 1558, the year Ferdinand was crowned emperor.

Ferdinand I spent much of his reign trying to settle religious conflicts in Germany and urging war against the Ottomans. He was an enthusiastic follower of the open-minded humanist scholar Desiderius ERASMUS. His tolerance for diversity, however, went only so far. Before he allowed his son Maximilian II to be crowned king of the Romans, Ferdinand forced him to renounce his Protestant beliefs.

When Ferdinand died in 1564, the Habsburg lands were divided among his three sons. Maximilian II succeeded his father as Holy Roman Emperor and gained Bohemia, part of Hungary, and Upper and Lower Austria. His brother Charles acquired Inner Austria, while the third brother, Ferdinand, received lands in Germany. Their cousin Philip II of Spain, named head of the house of Habsburg in 1564, ruled over what became the world's leading military power. Philip had some success against the Ottoman Turks, winning significant battles in North Africa and in the waters off Lepanto, Greece.

Both Philip and Maximilian had broad intellectual interests and both men became great patrons of the arts and sciences. Determined to make Vienna the cultural center of Europe, Maximilian brought distinguished scientists and scholars to the city. Philip continued his father's patronage of the Italian artist Titian and also promoted the career of one of the leading female painters of the late Renaissance—Sofonisba ANGUISSOLA of Cremona. He also established academies to promote mathematics and science.

The Later Habsburgs. Despite numerous intermarriages, the Habsburg inheritance remained divided between its Austrian and Spanish branches. Philip III succeeded his father Philip II on the Spanish throne, ruling from 1598 to 1621. Maximilian II became the Holy Roman Emperor in 1564, followed by RUDOLF II in 1576. Already king of Bohemia and Hungary, Rudolf never married and is best known for his patronage of the arts and sciences. He turned Prague (in the present-day Czech Republic) into a great cultural center by bringing the astronomers Tycho BRAHE, Johannes KEPLER, and others to his court. Rudolf's brother Matthias succeeded him. Lazy and in poor health, Matthias left government matters in the hands of Melchior Klesl, bishop of Vienna. Klesl's efforts to make peace between Catholics and Protestants were hampered by Matthias's cousin Ferdinand, who became emperor in 1619. By that time the THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618–1648) had begun and the house of Habsburg was in decline.

Habsburg Dynasty

While Others Wage War