Illumination

The art of illumination—embellishing pages of manuscripts with hand-painted decorations and illustrations—arose during the Middle Ages. Illuminated books often featured large elaborate capital letters at the beginning of each section and colorful illustrations in the margins. Artists of the Renaissance built on medieval* traditions of illumination and also created new styles. Various cities in Italy and other parts of Europe developed their own distinct styles of illumination.

New Developments and Old Traditions. One of the main changes that occurred in the Renaissance involved a new style of script. In the early 1400s scholars in Florence, including Poggio Bracciolini and Coluccio SALUTATI, developed a form of writing consisting of both capital and lowercase letters. The new script spread quickly among humanist* scholars. One of its distinctive characteristics was an initial capital letter known as white vine, which featured vines twining through and around the letter against a colored background.

At the same time, illumination artists remained faithful to many of the traditions of the Middle Ages. They worked mostly on Bibles and other religious texts. They followed medieval examples in their choice of subject, placement of illustrations, and decorative style. For example, they continued to show an image of Christ on the cross on missals (books with the text of the Roman Catholic Mass) and to use popular decorative elements of the Middle Ages, such as leaves, flowers, and fruit.

Throughout the Middle Ages, religious institutions such as monasteries had played a major role in manuscript production. This continued during the Renaissance, and many scribes* and some illuminators were members of the clergy. However, in many cities a network of people outside the church became involved in producing manuscripts and books. These included entrepreneurs who paid for the materials, commissioned the work, and sold the finished products, as well as the scribes, illuminators, and binders who worked on the manuscripts. Well-to-do nobles and merchants provided a growing market for these manuscripts as they sought to build their libraries. Religious houses also supported the book trade by buying manuscripts.

Italian Illumination. Florence was the most important center of illumination in the 1400s. Wealthy patrons* such as the MEDICI family promoted the enterprise. Lorenzo de' Medici even ordered a series of illuminated prayer books for the weddings of his daughters. The development of the university and the growth of humanist studies also helped boost the local book trade. In addition, some of Florence's leading artists, such as Fra ANGELICO, worked as illuminators.

Milan became a major center of illumination around 1400. Many of the best illustrators in the region continued to work in the Gothic* style of the Middle Ages. Members of Milan's ruling Visconti family were important patrons and eventually collected a magnificent library. But after France conquered Lombardy (the region around Milan) in 1499, the library fell into French hands.

In Venice, state papers were often illuminated. Artist Leonardo Bellini decorated many of these documents, using some of the new artistic styles favored by his uncle, the painter Jacopo BELLINI. However, the most innovative artists of the mid-1400s worked anonymously. The first books printed in Venice contained blank areas where illuminations could be added by hand. Many of the artists who illustrated these books later produced woodcuts* for printed works.

In Rome, popes and other church leaders provided patronage for many illuminators. This support reached a peak in the mid-1400s under Pope NICHOLAS V, who promoted the arts and learning. Popes and cardinals often hired illuminators from their home cities. Some of the most splendid illuminated manuscripts produced in Rome in the latter part of the 1400s were made for Pope Sixtus IV.

Many towns in Italy provided work for illuminators, and important nobles, such as members of the GONZAGA family in Mantua, were major patrons. In Urbino, Duke Federico da MONTEFELTRO spent 30,000 ducats of his personal fortune on manuscripts for his library. Wealthy monasteries also commissioned illuminated works, particularly sets of choir books. In northeastern Italy, the dukes of Ferrara were the leading patrons. The most famous of all Italian Renaissance manuscripts, a great Bible, was created for Duke Borso d'ESTE between 1455 and 1462. It featured an illuminated opening for each book of the Bible.

Later Developments. In the late 1400s patrons in Spain and northern Europe began buying illuminated Italian manuscripts or receiving them as gifts. Italian works circulated as far away as England. The king of Hungary, Matthias Corvinus, even persuaded Italian illuminators to move to his court to produce their work. Northern European artists who traveled to Italy to study brought home new styles, such as the white vine initial. However, most illuminators in northern Europe continued to favor late Gothic, rather than Italian, styles.

The growth of printing in the 1500s severely weakened the market for illuminated manuscripts. However, the art form was still used for state documents in Venice and for missals in Rome. One of the greatest illuminators of the Renaissance, Giulio Clovino, worked in Rome during this period. The art historian Giorgio Vasari called him the "Michelangelo of small works." In fact, Clovino was a friend and admirer of Michelangelo. He also had a high regard for the work of German artist Albrecht DÜRER, whose prints influenced many later illuminators. Although the production of illuminated books declined, they continued to be highly valued into the late 1500s.