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Inquisition

In the late 1400s and 1500s, the Roman Catholic Church and secular* governments set up several courts, or inquisitions, to investigate charges of heresy*. The popular image of these inquisitions consists of religious fanatics holding staged trials and burning thousands of innocent people at the stake. The reality, although unpleasant, was far different from these bloody legends.

THE ROMAN INQUISITION

During the Middle Ages individual members of the clergy had investigated cases of heresy in Rome. In 1542 Pope Paul III set up a formal inquisition in Rome to deal with charges of heresy. This court, established in response to the rising challenge of Protestantism, fell directly under the authority of the pope.

Structure. The governing board of the Roman Inquisition, known as the Holy Office, consisted of a group of cardinals appointed by the pope. This group oversaw local tribunals (courts) located throughout Italy. Each tribunal had a chief official called an inquisitor and several minor figures who assisted him. Most of these inquisitors held degrees in theology*, but not in law. Leading lawyers and theologians from each region aided the court in reaching decisions. The Holy Office in Rome usually reviewed each trial before the final sentence was passed.

The Roman Inquisition took precedence over all other secular and religious courts in Italy that heard heresy charges. It had authority over most parts of the Italian peninsula, but it was not allowed to operate openly in the region ruled by Naples. Other areas of Italy, such as Venice, also placed limits on the activities of the Roman Inquisition.

Procedures. The church understood that some accusations of heresy might arise from personal spite. Therefore, it introduced several measures to help protect the accused, such as asking them to name all their enemies before the trial. Prisoners also received a written record of their hearings and had anywhere from several days to a few weeks to prepare a defense and call friendly witnesses. In addition, tribunals appointed defense lawyers for the accused, a legal protection not available in many secular courts at the time. Finally, those convicted by the inquisition could appeal the decision to the highest court in Rome.

Most punishments were fairly mild. For example, the court might humiliate the offenders by requiring them to confess their crimes in public. Fines, community service, and prayers were other common punishments. Even sentences such as imprisonment were not as bad as they might seem. A life sentence might end in parole after a few years, and some prisoners could serve their time under house arrest. The most severe sentence—death by burning at the stake—was very rare. Only those who repeatedly committed heresy, those who showed no regret, and—after the late 1550s—those who denied certain basic Catholic doctrines suffered this penalty. A religious group that comforted the accused during their last hours recorded only about 100 executions between 1542 and 1761.

Many people associate the inquisitions of this period with the use of torture. However, the inquisition did not use torture as a form of punishment, but as a means of persuading people to confess their crimes. In any case, torture was an extreme measure for cases where the evidence of heresy was extremely strong. Local courts could not perform torture without the approval of the local bishop or his vicar.

NATIONAL INQUISITIONS

The rulers of Spain and Portugal established their own inquisitions to try cases of heresy in their kingdoms. These tribunals were bloodier and more ruthless than the one in Rome, executing far more suspects. However, even in Spain and Portugal most cases did not end with the death penalty.

The Spanish Inquisition. In 1478 Pope Sixtus IV gave the Spanish rulers FERDINAND OF ARAGON and ISABELLA OF CASTILE approval to establish an inquisition in Spain. The kingdom included many CONVERSOS, Jews who had converted to Christianity—often because they were forced to do so. Accusations that the conversos were practicing Judaism in secret led the Spanish tribunal to investigate their loyalty. By targeting converted Jews, the inquisition reinforced anti-Semitic* attitudes in Spain.

Although this inquisition took its authority from the pope, the Spanish crown controlled it through a central council called the Suprema. Inquisitors did not have to be clergy members, but they did need a law degree. The Spanish Inquisition had power only over baptized Christians, not over Muslims or Jews.

A Dominican* monk named Tomás de Torquemada became the first inquisitor general of the Spanish Inquisition. Local tribunals were set up throughout Spain and in Spanish territories in Sicily, Sardinia, and the New World. Tribunals in the Americas focused mainly on making sure all Spanish colonists shared the same Catholic beliefs. Their targets included foreigners (especially the French, English, and Portuguese) as well as conversos.

The Spanish Inquisition was most active between 1480 and 1530, when it focused on conversos. Inquisitors made periodic trips through towns to receive information about possible heretics, and then theologians examined the evidence. If they believed the charges of heresy were true, the court arrested the accused person and seized his or her property to pay for the cost of the trial. In rare cases, the tribunals used torture to extract information in cases of heresy.

The most famous procedure of the inquisition was the auto-da-fé, a public ceremony to sentence those accused of heresy. Many defendants escaped the death penalty through "edicts of grace," which gave them a month to confess and be pardoned. The majority of death sentences issued were against defendants who had been tried and convicted in their absence, and were therefore never carried out. Nonetheless, the court executed around 2,000 conversos between 1480 and 1530. Local authorities carried out the death sentence since clergy members were not allowed to shed blood.

In the late 1500s the Spanish Inquisition began to investigate the activities of Muslim converts, known as MORISCOS. It also acted against suspected Protestants. In addition, it began to try other offenses besides heresy. Over time it focused more on such social offenses as swearing and immoral sexual practices. By 1730 the court had became largely inactive, and in 1834 the Spanish closed it down.

The Portuguese Inquisition. In 1536 the Portuguese king John III received papal* approval to set up an inquisition. Its main purpose was to ensure that converted Jews did not go back to practicing Judaism. It also tried cases of witchcraft, sacrilege*, and bigamy (having more than one spouse). Its procedures were similar to those of the Spanish Inquisition, including the use of torture to gain information. The Portuguese exported their inquisition to their colonies in Asia, Africa, and Brazil.

The Portuguese Inquisition tried only a small percentage of those accused. Death sentences were rare. Out of more than 32,000 people tried between 1536 and 1674, only around 1,600 were condemned to death. This figure included some people who had fled and, therefore, were beyond reach, and some who had already died. Those found guilty might also suffer beating, imprisonment, or exile. In addition, the state could seize their property. The inquisition also played a role in book censorship. Its agents searched foreign ships for works on the INDEX OF PROHIBITED BOOKS, a list of texts banned by the pope.

(See also Anti-Semitism; Censorship; Jews.)

* secular

nonreligious; connected with everyday life

* heresy

belief that is contrary to the doctrine of an established church

* theology

study of the nature of God and of religion

* anti-Semitic

referring to prejudice against Jews

* Dominican

religious order of brothers and priests founded by St. Dominic

* papal

referring to the office and authority of the pope

* sacrilege

disrespect of sacred things