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Literature

The Renaissance was an extremely fruitful period for European literature. Much of the writing of the time reflected a renewed interest in the literary works of ancient Greece and Rome. Scholars studied these classical* texts and used them to form theories about writing. Authors also drew on classical works as inspiration for their own writings. Combining ancient ideas with literary styles from the Middle Ages, they left the world some of its finest and most enduring literary achievements.

LITERARY THEORY

Literary theory and criticism blossomed during the Renaissance. Scholars turned to classical texts to help them understand the literary trends of their day. Based on these texts, they developed new theories about such topics as the use of language and the value of poetry.

Rediscovering Ancient Texts. Beginning in the late 1300s, Italian humanists* uncovered many ancient Latin and Greek texts that had been unknown to scholars of the Middle Ages. These discoveries, which continued throughout the 1400s, had a major influence on Renaissance literature. Classical studies received a boost in 1450 when Johann GUTENBERG developed the printing press, which made it possible to print books on a large scale. His invention helped spread classical texts, both in their original languages and in translation.

The most influential ancient text on the writing of poetry, drama, and fiction was Poetics, by the Greek philosopher ARISTOTLE. A Latin translation of this work was published in 1498, and the Greek original appeared in print ten years later. Renaissance scholars embraced Aristotle's views about the importance of plot, the need for realism and unity in a literary work, and the use of literature to transmit moral values. Scholars also drew ideas about writing from the Art of Poetry, by the ancient Roman poet Horace. This work, less formal than Aristotle's, emphasized the value of rhetoric* in making an impact on the reader.

A Question of Language. The discovery and translation of ancient works helped fuel an ongoing debate about whether authors should write in Latin or in their own native tongues. Throughout the Middle Ages, most educated writers in Europe had used Latin for their works. Around 1300, however, some authors began to produce works in vernacular* languages. As distinct national literatures emerged, various writers defended the use of their native tongues as superior to Latin.

Many authors, however, continued to support the use of Latin. They believed that the Latin language provided the best tool for capturing the elegance of classical styles. They attempted to return the language, which had changed over the course of the Middle Ages, to its ancient Roman roots by imitating classical writers, especially the Roman orator CICERO. Their works created a flourishing Neo-Latin literature that crossed all national and social borders. However, today this literature is almost unknown because so few people read Latin.

In Defense of Poetry. Renaissance authors also devoted their attention to poetics, the study of poetry. Throughout the Middle Ages, poets and scholars had admired the works of classical poets and had drawn many of their ideas about verse writing from ancient Greece and Rome. Over the years, however, theories about poetry had moved away from their classical roots. As the humanists of the Renaissance revived the ideas of ancient writers, they placed a particular emphasis on poetry writing.

Some scholars opposed the study of pagan* poetry. Certain religious leaders, for example, attacked poets as liars whose works tended to inspire immoral behavior. Humanist scholars, in response, published defenses of poetry. The great Italian poet PETRARCH claimed that poems were not lies but allegories* for great moral truths. Author Giovanni BOCCACCIO agreed, noting that pagan verse reflected many of the ideas in the Bible. He also declared that poetry played an important role in civilization. Educator Guarino GUARINI argued that ancient poetry was not only useful but necessary to support religious teachings.

Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence published On the Art of Poetry, the first Renaissance treatise* on poetics, around 1490. His book explored such topics as the moral value of poetry and the use of classical models for verse writing. In the 1500s ideas about poetics began to spread from Italy to other parts of Europe. In 1583 English poet Philip SIDNEY published a Defense of Poetry that blended some of the best ideas of ancient writers and Renaissance critics.

DEVELOPING LITERARY STYLES

As Renaissance scholars learned more about the ancient literature of Greece and Rome, they revived many of the literary forms of the ancient world. They also modified genres* from the Middle Ages, such as the romance*. Some Renaissance writers brought back the classical tradition of celebrating sexuality in literature. Their openness about sexual matters earned them the disapproval of many religious leaders.

Allegory. Writers of the Renaissance made frequent use of allegory, a device in which people and events serve as symbols, so that a story carries a hidden meaning. Allegory appeared in drama, poetry, and other literary forms. In some cases, a single extended allegory made up an entire work.

Authors used allegory in several different ways. Sometimes their human characters represented abstract qualities. In The Faerie Queene, Edmund SPENSER of England created a character called Disdain, who walked on tiptoes and had knees that did not bend. Objects could also serve as symbols. For example, a crown could represent rulership.

Other forms of allegory were more complex. In some cases, an entire work retold events from history, using different characters to represent real people. Spenser told the English queen ELIZABETH I that his Faerie Queene reflected Elizabeth and her realm "in mirrors more than one." Events and figures within a story could also serve as religious symbols, turning the story into a reflection of Christian beliefs. Both Spenser and Philip Sidney claimed that story writing had value because it could present moral truths through allegory.

Satire. Another literary device popular with Renaissance authors was satire—the use of writing to expose human wickedness or foolishness. Early in the Renaissance, writers began reviving classical satire, as practiced by such ancient Roman authors as Horace, Juvenal, and Martial. They followed the lead of these ancient writers in praising the virtues and mocking the vices of their own societies. Famous satirists included Ludovico ARIOSTO in Italy, François RABELAIS in France, Thomas MORE in England, and Desiderius ERASMUS in the Netherlands.

Like allegory, satire appeared in a variety of literary forms. The shortest was the epigram, a brief poem or witty saying. Short allegorical stories, known as fables, were another popular mode of satire. Writers also produced longer satires in the form of verse or dialogue. They used satire to attack all aspects of Renaissance culture, including the church, the law, and the life of the court. Appropriate subjects included, in the words of Juvenal, "whatever men do."

Romances. The romance form dates back to the 1100s, when French writers adopted ancient Latin stories of war and adventure. The romance tradition reflected the ideals of chivalry, a code of honor for medieval* knights. Legends of the Welsh king Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table played a major role in the development of this literary form.

Romances gained favor with readers during the Renaissance. The most popular romances came out of Italy, where writers such as Ludovico Ariosto and Torquato TASSO adapted the conventions of the genre to create finely crafted masterpieces. In England, the romance of chivalry became the most popular form of fiction during the Renaissance. Philip Sidney's Arcadia and Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene, both published in the 1590s, drew on the Arthurian tradition. Toward the end of the Renaissance, Spanish author Miguel de CERVANTES both adopted and mocked the romance tradition in his famous novel Don Quixote.

Pornography. Although the word pornography did not exist during the Renaissance, sexually explicit* writings certainly did exist at that time. Renaissance humanists actively studied the sexual customs of ancient Greece and Rome, where poetry and statues had openly celebrated nudity and sexual desire. These ancient works embraced a variety of sexual behaviors that Christian churches condemned. As a result, they challenged the humanists' view that there was no conflict between ancient literature and Christian belief.

Some scholars simply ignored the ancient literature that focused on sex. Others censored ancient works, removing indecent passages to protect young readers. Many humanists, however, studied these works as seriously as other forms of ancient literature. Some authors, in fact, pointed to the sexual writings of the ancient world to justify their own works on similar topics.

Sexual literature provoked criticism from many readers. In 1425, for example, Italian writer Antonio Beccadelli published a poem called Hermaphroditus. The title refers to an ancient Greek god who had both male and female sexual organs. Preachers and the pope condemned the poem, and copies of it were burned publicly in several cities. Many humanists, however, viewed the work as a witty imitation of ancient writing.

One of the most popular writers of pornography in the Renaissance was Pietro Aretino. In his Lewd Sonnets* (1527), Aretino described 16 sexual positions, based on drawings by a Roman artist. The book created a scandal, yet it also became hugely popular. Many historians see it as the first true work of pornography in the modern sense of the word.

(See also Drama; Drama, English; Drama, French; Drama, Spanish; English Language and Literature; French Language and Literature; German Language and Literature; Italian Language and Literature; Jewish Languages and Literature; Latin Language and Literature; Literacy; Poetry; Poetry, English; Portuguese Language and Literature; Religious Literature; Spanish Language and Literature.)

* classical

in the tradition of ancient Greece and Rome

* humanist

Renaissance expert in the humanities (the languages, literature, history, and speech and writing techniques of ancient Greece and Rome)

* rhetoric

art of speaking or writing effectively

* vernacular

native language or dialect of a region or country

* pagan

referring to ancient religions that worshiped many gods, or more generally, to any non-Christian religion

* allegory

literary or artistic device in which characters, events, and settings represent abstract qualities, and in which the author intends a different meaning to be read beneath the surface

* treatise

long, detailed essay

* genre

literary form

* romance

adventure story of the Middle Ages, the forerunner of the modern novel

Satyr Satire

Most scholars of the Renaissance believed that the word satire came from ancient Greek plays about satyrs. The satyr was a mythical beast, half man and half goat, known for its lusty nature. As a result, some literary theorists argued that satire tended to be a coarse, indecent form of writing. In fact, the word satire is not related to satyrs. Modern scholars think it may come from a Latin term for a dish of mixed ingredients—suggesting that satires could actually cover a wide variety of topics and styles.

* medieval

referring to the Middle Ages, a period that began around A.D. 400 and ended around 1400 in Italy and 1500 in the rest of Europe

* explicit

presented in a clear and direct way

* sonnet

poem of 14 lines with a fixed pattern of meter and rhyme