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Music

During the Renaissance, widespread support for the arts led to a surge of interest in music. European composers and performers developed a rich and varied body of music that reflected the major cultural influences of the time. New musical forms emerged in France and the Netherlands in the 1400s and gradually spread to Italy and the rest of Europe. Musicians adopted these new forms and combined them with their local traditions to create distinctive regional styles.

MUSIC IN RENAISSANCE SOCIETY

Three factors contributed to the growth of music during the Renaissance. First, wealthy patrons* supported the musical arts, especially at the powerful courts of Europe's major cities. Second, advances in printing allowed composers and publishers to distribute copies of new works to a wide audience. Third, Catholic and Protestant churches hired some of Europe's finest musicians to create pieces for religious worship.

Patronage. Certain European cities became major centers of musical activity during the Renaissance. In northern Europe, many cathedrals and religious societies supported groups of singers and musicians. The cities of Ghent, Bruges, and Nürnberg became famous for their musicians, and Antwerp attracted many instrument makers and music publishers. Musicians from these cities, such as singers trained at the cathedral choir schools, worked all over Europe. Wealthy patrons sought out talented performers, often competing for the most skilled musicians.

The courts of Renaissance rulers promoted music by bringing composers and performers together. The rulers of France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire* employed musicians to accompany services in their royal chapels. Wealthy nobles such as the dukes of Burgundy spent large sums of money to hire composers, singers, and instrumentalists, and to purchase books of music.

In Italy, music developed differently from the other arts. The painters, sculptors, and writers active in the region were mostly Italians. Many of Italy's professional musicians, by contrast, had been trained in other parts of Europe. Music flourished at princely courts in Naples, Mantua, and Milan. In Florence, the House of MEDICI—the city's most powerful family—supported musicians along with other artists.

Music Publishing. During the 1500s, musical knowledge spread quickly throughout Europe, thanks in part to developments in printing. In 1501, Ottaviano dei Petrucci of Venice developed the first method for printing music. He published songs by some of the leading composers of the day. Around 1520 Pierre Attaignant of PARIS began using a more efficient printing process that drastically cut costs. Nevertheless, most composers had to find wealthy patrons to pay the costs of printing their works. As a result, many Renaissance editions of music are dedicated to a patron.

Music publishing developed into a successful industry, with major centers in Venice, Nürnberg, Rome, Antwerp, and Paris. Gradually, printed music replaced hand-copied manuscripts, enabling new music to reach customers more quickly. For example, by the 1590s, merchants in Gdansk, Poland, could receive copies of new pieces from Italy within months.

Role of the Church. The religious institutions of Renaissance Europe strongly influenced the development of music. Music played a central role in the religious life of most communities. In Catholic regions, religious leaders and organizations were major patrons of the musical arts. The best musicians in Europe played at the two papal* chapels in Rome, and Catholic monarchs hired musicians to perform sacred music at their courts. Composers also wrote religious pieces for special occasions, such as royal processions and weddings.

Music served a variety of purposes in Protestant communities. Martin LUTHER admired music, and his followers established a set of German hymns to be sung in church. In the Netherlands, Anabaptists who were imprisoned for their beliefs used hymns and sacred songs to support each other and to strengthen their faith. In England, composers such as William BYRD created an impressive body of music for the royal chapel of the Protestant queen ELIZABETH I.

Influence of Humanism. Various Renaissance scholars wrote about music, and they often turned to ancient philosophy for inspiration. For example, the Italian humanist* Marsilio FICINO drew on the ideas of the ancient Greek philosopher PLATO to discuss the role of music in human experience. Plato had described the human soul in musical terms. He believed that ideally, the body and the soul should exist in harmony. In Three Books on Life (1489), Ficino developed this idea, claiming that sweet music could create harmony in the human soul—and could even affect the planets and the stars. Many Renaissance scholars believed that musical harmony reflected the order of the universe. In their view, music could lead a soul to the divine source of harmony—that is, to God.

The thoughts of the ancient Greek philosopher ARISTOTLE also influenced Renaissance scholars of music. Many of them, for example, accepted Aristotle's view of music and all other arts as forms of imitation. They also agreed with Aristotle's claim that music had the power to inspire passions and to cleanse people of unwanted emotions.

Women and Music. Many European women contributed to the development of Renaissance music, although not always in obvious ways. Catholic nuns contributed to the growing musical output in many Italian cities. Female printers—such as Catherina Gerlach of Nürnberg—helped the spread of music. Women also served as patrons of the musical arts. Isabella d'Este of Mantua, a member of Italy's powerful House of ESTE, was a keen musician and musical patron. She played a role in the development of the frottola, a type of Italian song for four voices.

Some Renaissance scholars, such as the Italian writer and diplomat Baldassare CASTIGLIONE, believed that music was especially suited to women. Castiglione claimed that music should form part of a noble education for both men and women. However, he also noted in his Book of the Courtier (1528) that the sweetness of music made it fitting for women. In Antwerp, the musical presses produced editions of works intended for women and girls to perform.

MUSICAL FORMS AND COMPOSERS

The rich musical environment in Renaissance Europe created many opportunities for musicians to practice their art. In cities and towns across the continent, composers produced new music for singers and instrumentalists. Their work built on the musical traditions of the past and, at the same time, developed new forms and styles.

Musical Forms. Several new musical forms emerged during the Renaissance. Vocal music was the most common type, both in the form of popular songs and in sacred settings such as the Catholic Mass. Renaissance Masses often involved the use of counterpoint, a form of harmony that weaves together several distinct lines of melody. This style of music, also known as polyphony, became increasingly common during the 1400s. By the 1500s, parts of the Mass were sung in four-part harmony.

Another major form of music was the motet, a Latin text set to music. The texts ranged from verses in honor of the Virgin Mary to lines marking a political occasion or honoring a prominent patron. Composers often wrote motets for religious services, such as memorial Masses. Many also wrote songs in the vernacular*, often for performances at princely courts. The madrigal—a complex piece for several voices—developed around 1530 and became the most popular form of nonreligious music for voices. Around 1600, composers began to produce operas, full-length dramas performed in song.

Composers. Many of the important musicians of the early Renaissance came from France and Flanders*. Guillaume Dufay (ca. 1397–1474), born near Brussels, spent many years working in Italy and for the duke of Savoy. He combined features of French, English, and Italian music to help create a new international style. The French composer JOSQUIN DES PREZ (1450–1521) worked for the dukes of Anjou and Ferrara, among others. In his many Masses, motets, and songs he developed new techniques that allowed the music to express the meaning of the text.

A leading composer of the late Renaissance was Orlando di LASSO of Flanders (1532–1594). Lasso held various posts in Italy and Bavaria and wrote hundreds of pieces of vocal music. During his lifetime he was the most widely performed composer in Europe, with groups as different as Italian nuns and German townspeople singing his songs. The Italian singer and composer Giovanni Pierluigi da PALESTRINA (ca. 1525–1594) focused on religious music. He worked in Rome, where he produced many Masses and other sacred works for the Roman Catholic Church.

The last great composer of the Renaissance was Claudio MONTEVERDI (1567–1643), also from Italy. Monteverdi wrote a wide variety of music, from madrigals and motets to Masses and operas. He was one of the first composers of Baroque* music, which moved away from the strict rules of counterpoint to create a new, highly expressive style.

(See also Baroque; Dance; Humanism; Music, Instrumental; Music, Vocal; Musical Instruments; Opera; Patronage; Printing and Publishing.)

* patron

supporter or financial sponsor of an artist or writer

* Holy Roman Empire

political body in central Europe composed of several states; existed until 1806

* papal

referring to the office and authority of the pope

* humanist

Renaissance expert in the humanities (the languages, literature, history, and speech and writing techniques of ancient Greece and Rome)

Becoming a Musician

Most musical learning during the Renaissance probably took place on an individual basis, with a master passing the art down to a student. Cathedral schools in France, Flanders, and Italy offered some organized instruction. In the late 1500s, printers produced musical primers, textbooks to teach the basics of music. Trained musicians could find work at major churches or in the household of a wealthy patron. However, they could easily lose their jobs if their patrons died or fell from power, or if the church ran short of funds.

* vernacular

native language or dialect of a region or country

* Flanders

a region along the coasts of present-day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands

* Baroque

artistic style of the 1600s characterized by movement, drama, and grandness of scale