Poland

The Renaissance marked a golden age for Poland. Located at the crossroads of routes linking western Europe with central Asia and Muscovy with southern Europe, the country enjoyed a thriving trade in agricultural exports. In the 1500s Poland stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, and its population reached about 11 million. The University of Cracow earned a reputation as an intellectual center, and literature and science flourished under the influence of humanist* ideas from Italy.

The Jagiellon dynasty that ruled Poland had grand ambitions. In 1385 the country had formed a personal union with Lithuania that greatly expanded its territory. However, Jagiellonian plans to win control over the kingdoms of BOHEMIA and HUNGARY suffered a serious setback in 1526, when invading Ottoman Turks* triumphed at the Battle of Mohács. Although advances by the Turks gradually restricted Poland's access to the Black Sea, the country's commerce continued. To protect its trade, Poland pursued a policy of peaceful relations with the Ottoman Empire from 1533 to 1620.

Politics, Government, and Economics. In 1569 Poland and Lithuania made their union formal and became a commonwealth. They shared a common ruler, parliament, and foreign policy. Monarchs were chosen from the Jagiellon family. After the last Jagiellon ruler died in 1572, an assembly of nobles elected the Polish king. Sigismund III (ruled 1587–1632) established the Vasa dynasty, which placed three kings on the throne. Under the Vasa, Poland won military victories over Sweden and the principality* of Muscovy in the early 1600s. The victories secured Poland's borders but did not end the threats posed by its neighbors. The nobles tried to keep Poland out of European conflicts, fearing that war would strengthen royal power.

Poland had a mixed monarchy. Privileges granted to the nobles restricted the power of the king. In 1493 these privileges were transferred to the Chamber of Deputies, which represented the nobles in parliament. Limiting the power of the king prevented the rise of absolutism in Poland. The nobles protected their own rights and backed the supremacy of law over the authority of individual rulers. These developments encouraged a national culture of tolerance and respect for human rights.

Grain agriculture, forest products, and the raising of oxen formed the core of Poland's economy. The nation had enough grain to feed its population and to export to western Europe. Large landowners profited the most from this trade. Because Poland had a small population for its size, nobles could require peasants to perform compulsory labor. This practice reinforced the system of serfdom, which tied peasants permanently to the land.

Culture and Society. The University of Cracow, founded in 1364, was the intellectual center of Poland. It produced many outstanding scholars in the fields of law, mathematics, literature, history, and geography. Nicolaus COPERNICUS, who gained fame for developing a new model of the universe, headed a school of astronomy. In time a network of Polish schools was established. Some followed Protestant models, and some were Jesuit* schools based on Italian and Spanish models. The schools flourished despite the religious disputes of the time.

Poland was closely connected to intellectual and artistic developments in the rest of Europe. Ties with Italy grew stronger in the 1500s because many Polish students attended Italian universities. The influence of Italy can be seen on Polish thought, art, and architecture. The writings of northern humanists, such as Desiderius ERASMUS, also had a broad following in Poland. In turn, works by Polish humanists appeared in cities across Europe. Poland enjoyed considerable prestige in the fields of legal and political thought, literature, and architecture. Writings on public affairs were popular in the country because so many citizens took part in political life.

During the 1500s various historical works encouraged the self-awareness of Poles and their sense of national identity. These works tried to promote the creation of an eastern Europe based on Roman ideals. Scholars borrowed humanist ideas from Italy and the Netherlands to support their vision, which would incorporate the religious and cultural diversity of the region. Latin was generally used for public speech in Poland in the early part of the Renaissance. However, the Polish language dominated poetry and gained wider acceptance in public life throughout the 1500s.

The Protestant Reformation* affected all social classes in Poland, but it did not lead to conflict as elsewhere in Europe. A notable feature of Polish life was religious tolerance. The Polish nobility used the threat of Protestantism as a tool against the political power of the Catholic Church. But the nobles returned to the Church in large numbers during the late 1500s. At first the nobles looked out for religious freedom, but in 1573 religious freedom became a formal part of the state system. Poland established itself as a strong defender of Catholicism without persecuting those who followed other faiths. Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox Christians, Jews, Muslims, and others lived together peacefully. The country remained a refuge for all persons persecuted for their beliefs.