Sculpture

During the Renaissance, sculptors produced a remarkable range of works, from small carved figures and relief* images to massive public monuments and religious statues. In some parts of Europe, particularly Italy, the rise of humanism* led to an interest in the sculptural styles of ancient Greece and Rome. However, much of the sculpture produced in northern Europe during the Renaissance showed the influence of the Gothic* art of the Middle Ages.

Italy. The development of Italian Renaissance sculpture can be divided into three periods: 1250 to 1400, 1400 to 1500, and 1500 to 1600. During the first period Italian sculpture followed several different trends, such as the use of massive medieval* forms and the incorporation of Gothic realism. Another trend, which set the stage for the Renaissance, was the emerging awareness of ancient Roman art. In the 1200s the work of southern Italian sculptors such as Nicola Pisano showed some of these tendencies, reflecting both ancient Roman and French Gothic sources.

During the second period of Italian Renaissance sculpture—the 1400s—many outstanding sculptors worked in Italy, especially in FLORENCE. The start of this period is generally associated with a competition held in 1402 for the creation of bronze doors for the baptistery in the city. Several prominent sculptors, including DONATELLO, Filippo BRUNELLESCHI, and Lorenzo GHIBERTI submitted entries. Ghiberti (ca. 1378–1455) won the contest with a relief that displays remarkably realistic human anatomy in a classical* style.

Donatello (ca. 1386–1466), the most outstanding Italian sculptor of the 1400s, also worked in Florence. His earliest pieces show the influence of ancient Roman sculpture. Over the course of his career, Donatello's artistry ranged from powerfully dramatic figures, such as Mary Magdalen, to captivating images of youth and beauty, such as David. He experimented with perspective* and with various decorative effects. To add a sense of drama to his work, he sometimes created vast scenes filled with agitated figures, such as the bronze reliefs in the sanctuary of St. Anthony at Padua.

During this second period, portraits of individuals became more realistic. Most sculptures of women were still idealized, with perfect, youthful faces and figures. Likenesses of men, however, followed the ancient Roman custom of including the details of aging and other unflattering physical elements. Antonio Pollaiuolo (ca. 1431–1498) took this approach in the tomb of Pope Sixtus IV in the Vatican, which plainly shows the elderly features of its subject.

In the 1500s MICHELANGELO (1475–1564) dominated Italian Renaissance sculpture. Some critics, including the art historian Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574), view Michelangelo's work as the climax of Renaissance art. In a career that spanned more than 60 years, the artist created numerous images of the human body to express his artistic ideas.

For many viewers Michelangelo's famous statue of David represents the ideal Renaissance male nude. Its pose, facial expression, and large scale suggest a tremendous sense of power. Two figures of Slaves that he created for the tomb of pope JULIUS II have tense muscular poses and emotionless faces that suggest inner struggle. Michelangelo also explored the use of allegory*. For the MEDICI tomb in Florence, he produced portraits of Giuliano and Lorenzo de' Medici that represent thought and action. Overall, Michelangelo's depiction of the human body went beyond traditional realism and introduced an exaggerated style that became known as Mannerism*.

As the 1500s progressed, powerful rulers often used sculpture to create impressive public monuments. Major works, such as massive fountains, featured images from classical allegory. In Florence, Cosimo I de' MEDICI hired the artist Benvenuto CELLINI (1500–1571) to produce a triumphant statue of the mythological hero Perseus. Sculptural decoration of buildings also became increasing important. The Venetian sculptor Jacopo Sansovino (1486–1570), for example, freely integrated sculpture with his architecture, giving it a luxurious appearance. Many of these elements were further developed in the Baroque* style of the 1600s.

Northern European Sculpture. During the late 1300s and early 1400s, artists in northern Europe created realistic sculptures with intricate detail. Their work had little connection with the classical style that developed in Italy. Instead, northern sculptors continued to use many of the artistic techniques found in the great Gothic cathedrals. They worked in a variety of styles and media, from large figures in wood and stone to exquisite ivory carvings. The pieces offer a broad range of emotional expression, from dramatic to sensitive.

By the end of the 1300s, northern European sculptors had developed a form of realism that was highly detailed. Sculptors began creating precise portraits of particular individuals. This realism reached a climax with the work of Flemish* sculptor Claus Sluter (ca. 1340–1406), whose images of biblical figures have animated expressions, a sense of movement, and include details such as signs of aging. Another characteristic of northern European work during this period is the use of paint on sculptured surfaces. Indeed, in the Netherlands, the development of painting and sculpture were closely connected.

In the 1400s sculpture in the realistic style appeared in Germany and Austria. The Dutch artist Nicolaus Gerhaert, who died in the 1470s, brought the style of Claus Sluter to the region. Notable German sculptural works of the late 1400s and early 1500s include monumental wooden altarpieces to decorate churches. Some of these pieces combine sculpture with painting, such as the Isenheim Altarpiece (1515), which features work by Matthias Grünewald and Nicholas of Hagenau.

In the 1500s the influence of the Italian Renaissance arrived in northern Europe. Flemish and German artists, such as Albrecht DÜRER (1471–1528), traveled to Italy and brought back Renaissance ideas and practices. In France and Spain, the monarchs were largely responsible for introducing Renaissance art. The rulers of both countries commissioned works from leading Italian masters. For example, in the 1540s the Italian artist Francesco Primaticcio adorned the French royal residence at Fontainebleau with elegant stucco nudes. In turn, many French and Spanish artists adopted Italian artistic techniques.

The rise of the Protestant Reformation* in German-speaking lands temporarily put an end to new religious sculpture. The more radical Protestant reformers were strongly opposed to the religious use of images, and some removed art from churches in the early 1500s. The followers of Martin LUTHER took a more moderate position, and their acceptance contributed to the re-emergence of religious sculpture in Germany in the late 1500s.