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Spain

In the 1400s the Iberian Peninsula* contained five separate kingdoms—Aragon, Castile, Navarre, PORTUGAL, and Granada. The first four kingdoms were Christian, but Muslims from North Africa—known as Moors—ruled the southern kingdom of Granada. Many Europeans used the term Spain to refer either to Castile or to the whole Iberian Peninsula except Portugal. Eventually, the Christians drove the Moors out of the region and established a unified kingdom. During the 1500s, Spain emerged as a major European power and empire with territories around the world.

HISTORY

During the Renaissance a series of strong monarchs succeeded in unifying Spain and increasing its political power. Spain became part of the Holy Roman Empire* and established a network of colonies that helped spread Spanish culture to other lands.

Moorish Spain. In the 1400s the population of the Iberian Peninsula was mostly Catholic, but it also included large numbers of Muslims and Jews. Muslims had first arrived in the early 700s from North Africa. The Moors conquered most of the peninsula and built a brilliant civilization there. Spain became an important part of the Islamic world.

The Muslims failed to conquer all of Iberia. Small Christian strongholds remained in the mountainous north and became the basis for the Christian kingdoms. From the 700s on, the Christians fought to regain control of Spain. Throughout this effort, known as the Reconquest, episodes of warfare between Christians and Muslims alternated with periods of relative peace. The Christians learned a great deal from the Moorish culture and also benefited economically. Nevertheless, as the Reconquest moved south, tensions between the two groups increased. By the 1400s relations had become hostile.

Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1469 the Christian monarchs FERDINAND OF ARAGON and ISABELLA OF CASTILE were married, technically uniting their two kingdoms. In reality, the various kingdoms of Spain remained divided as a result of geography and history. The kingdom of Castile dominated the center of the Iberian Peninsula. The kingdom of Aragon, to the east, consisted of three distinct areas: Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia. The kings of Aragon also ruled a Mediterranean empire that included SICILY, Sardinia, and the kingdom of NAPLES. Surrounding the united kingdoms were Navarre in the north, Granada in the south, and Portugal in the west.

In 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last remaining Moorish region in Europe. Determined to create an entirely Christian kingdom, the two monarchs ordered Jews in Spain to convert to Christianity or leave the country. About half the Jewish population left, settling mainly in North Africa and Portugal. The rest converted. In 1500 the king and queen gave the Muslims the same choice—either adopt Christianity or leave. Most chose to convert and remain.

By the early 1500s, there were two significant minority groups in Spain: the conversos (Christians of Jewish origin) and the Moriscos (Christians of Muslim origin). Old Christians resented and feared the converts, viewing them as poor Christians and a threat to religious unity. The Spanish Inquisition* addressed the problem by attempting to enforce Christian beliefs and practice among the converts.

Ferdinand and Isabella also focused on foreign policy. They built alliances through marriages with members of the HABSBURG DYNASTY and the royal families of England and Portugal. Ferdinand ended revolts in Aragon and consolidated his power there. Meanwhile, Isabella increased her power in Castile by working out arrangements with Castilian nobles. Gradually, the two rulers unified much of Spain. In addition, they sponsored the voyages of Christopher COLUMBUS, who searched for a westward route to Asia and, in the process, claimed land in the AMERICAS for Spain. After Isabella's death in 1504, Ferdinand married Germaine de Foix, heir to the throne of Navarre. Their marriage led to the incorporation of much of Navarre into Castile.

Charles I. When Ferdinand died in 1516, his grandson Charles took the throne as Charles I, ruling a territory that corresponded roughly to modern Spain. Three years later Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor, succeeding his Habsburg grandfather, MAXIMILIAN I, and became CHARLES V. With these legacies, Charles controlled the largest empire in Europe. In addition to Spain, his territories included much of central Europe, the NETHERLANDS, lands in the Mediterranean, and colonies in the Americas.

Born and raised in the Netherlands, Charles was considered a foreigner by many of his Spanish subjects. Spanish discontent led to a series of revolts in Castile and Valencia in the 1520s. However, the revolts failed, leaving Charles with peace in Spain. Elsewhere, Spanish forces took control of territories in North Africa and Italy. Charles, who viewed himself as a protector of Catholicism, also spent considerable effort fighting the Ottoman Turks* in the Mediterranean and Protestantism in Germany.

In 1556 Charles I gave up his crowns and retired to a monastery. Before stepping down, he divided his empire. Charles's younger brother Ferdinand assumed the position of Holy Roman Emperor; his son Philip became king of Spain, the Netherlands, part of Italy, and the colonies in the Americas.

The reign of PHILIP II (1556–1598) was a mixture of successes and failures. In Spain, uprisings in Granada (1566–1571) and Aragon (1591, 1592) threatened the peace. However, both were put down. In the Netherlands, opponents of Spanish rule rebelled in 1566, and the revolt led to the loss of the northern Dutch provinces. In 1571 a Christian force led by Spain won a great victory over the Turks at the battle of Lepanto, temporarily halting Ottoman advances. Nine years later, Philip won the throne of Portugal, adding the Portuguese possessions in Africa, South America, and Asia to the Spanish Empire. Then, in 1588, the great Spanish Armada (naval fleet) failed in its attempt to attack England. The defeat dealt a serious blow to Spain's prestige and marked the beginning of a period of decline.

In the 1590s, the Spanish monarchy faced a series of difficulties, including bankruptcy and widespread plague* and famine. Philip III took the throne in 1598. During his reign, Spain began adjusting to its status as a secondary power in Europe.

SOCIETY AND ECONOMY

Spain's historical circumstances led to the development of a distinct Spanish culture during the Renaissance. The Roman Catholic Church played a major role in the kingdom, and the church and local traditions shaped Spanish society. At the same time, a vigorous economy based on agriculture and trade helped support the growing Spanish Empire.

The Catholic Church. Throughout the Renaissance, the Catholic Church had enormous power in Spain. Members of the church enjoyed certain rights and privileges as well as wealth and status according to a well defined hierarchy*. Various monastic* orders occupied a prominent place in Spanish society, and some groups, such as the Jesuits*, conducted important educational and missionary activities. According to estimates, the Spanish clergy in the late 1500s included about 91,000 members, slightly more than 1 percent of the total population.

The church had always had a close relationship with the Spanish crown. In 1478 at the request of Ferdinand and Isabella it launched the Inquisition. The governing council of the Inquisition was part of the royal administration, and the crown appointed all members of the Inquisition courts. Besides punishing those who practiced Judaism, Islam, or Protestantism, the courts also reviewed the religious ancestry of candidates for high office and censored works.

With the conquest of Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella won the right to name candidates for the office of bishop there. This gave them control over the direction of church policy. The right of naming candidates was later extended to other church offices in all Spanish lands. From the church, the monarchy also acquired important sources of revenue.

Society. The militant Christianity of the Middle Ages continued into the Renaissance in Spain. The Reconquest encouraged the view among some Spaniards that wealth could be gained from the armed conquest of alien peoples and that the survival of Christian society depended on unity and a militant defense of the faith. Still, the social structure and occupations of the Spanish people were similar to those of other European peoples.

Spanish society was overwhelmingly rural—four out of every five people worked on the land. The majority did not have property or animals of their own and worked for others. Some hired out on a day-today basis; others had labor contracts for a season or a year. Most of the agricultural workers lived in small villages or towns and traveled back and forth to labor in the fields and pastures.

At the upper end of society was the nobility, whose ancestors had received land and status, usually for military service to the monarchy. The nobility was divided into three groups. The hidalgos, the lowest group, could claim a certain amount of local prestige and exemption from some taxes. The señores, in the middle, controlled small territories. The top level consisted of titled nobles, often called the títulos or grandes. These individuals possessed great wealth and power, and vast landholdings—sometimes even including towns.

The nobles of Castile tended to live in towns and cities and to dominate local government. The highest-ranking nobles followed the royal court, seeking to gain control over important offices and to influence foreign commerce. Political power brought Spanish nobles greater wealth and social status. By the mid-1400s, a small group of noble families had amassed great amounts of land, titles, wealth, and government positions.

The legal system of Renaissance Spain was based on ancient Roman law. It developed from a code adopted by King Alfonso X of Castile in the mid-1200s. In the 1500s Spanish monarchs sought to impose royal law throughout the various kingdoms, but local traditions limited what they could do. In addition, some provinces preferred law codes from the Middle Ages that offered protection against the abuse of royal power.

Economy. Beginning in the late 1400s, the Spanish economy expanded, especially in terms of long-distance trade. The largest and most important economic activity was agriculture, ranging from cereals and livestock in Castile to rice, vegetables, and fruits in Granada, Valencia, and Aragon. Although the Spanish consumed most of their farm products, they exported large quantities of wine, olive oil, fruits, and other items.

Spain also developed successful industries, including the production of woolen cloth and shipbuilding. By the 1400s the kingdom of Castile had become one of western Europe's main suppliers of high quality wool. Cities such as Barcelona and Bilbao were important shipbuilding centers.

Trade played a vital role in the Spanish economy. Since the 1200s Spanish merchants had developed strong trading networks in the Mediterranean. Later, trade routes connected Spain to England, France, and the rest of northern Europe. In Castile, foreign trade increased along with religious pilgrimages. The route of the Way of St. James pilgrimage drew large numbers of Europeans across northern Spain to the shrine of St. James in the city of Santiago de Compostela. During the 1400s busy trade fairs in Castile brought merchants together. The most important fair, in the town of Medina del Campo, attracted traders from all over Europe. By the 1500s the town had become the financial center of Castile.

Spain's strong trading network encouraged interest in overseas exploration. It also helped develop the organizational skills and business techniques that were used to manage the country's vast overseas empire. In 1436 Castile created a convoy system, which involved sending armed ships with merchant vessels to protect them against piracy and other threats. This type of convoy system was later used to protect ships traveling to Spain from the Americas.

Many Italian merchants settled in Spain and married into the local nobility. By the 1400s Italians from GENOA were prospering as bankers in SEVILLE. Merchants such as these helped finance the voyages of Christopher Columbus, and later expanded their trading operations in Spain's American empire.

EUROPEAN TIES

Spain maintained close relations with the rest of Europe during the Renaissance. Like other Catholic countries, it had strong ties with Rome. Spanish clergy lived in Rome and played a significant role in church affairs. Many Spanish students traveled abroad to study. Similarly, foreign students attended Spanish institutions such as the prestigious University of Salamanca.

Artists came to Spain from various parts of Europe, especially the Netherlands, and Spanish monarchs, nobles, and clergy collected Netherlandish art. Italian artists also found patrons* at the Spanish court. Scholars from across Europe worked in Spain, and Spanish became a common second language among the upper classes in France, Italy, and the Netherlands.

Spain's vast European and overseas empire helped make it the world's first superpower. However, maintaining this empire was very costly. As a result, Spain entered a period of decline in the 1600s. Although it kept its American empire, it gradually lost influence in Europe as other nations took the lead.

(See also Armada, Spanish; Art in Spain and Portugal; Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation; Cortés, Hernán; Drama, Spanish; Exploration; Madrid; Spanish Language and Literature; Toledo; Universities.)

* Iberian Peninsula

part of western Europe occupied by present-day Spain and Portugal

* Holy Roman Empire

political body in central Europe composed of several states; existed until 1806

* Spanish Inquisition

court established by the Spanish monarchs that investigated Christians accused of straying from the official doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church, particularly during the period 1480–1530

Defending Christianity

Some Spanish nobles and clergy belonged to religious military orders, which were founded in the 1100s to help with the Reconquest of the Iberian peninsula. These orders received huge grants of land, authority over about a million people, and the right to bestow the title of caballero (knight). The religious military orders provided positions of respect and influence for members of noble families. But the wealth and power of the orders also made them threats to the crown, and Spanish monarchs took steps to control the religious military orders more closely.

* Ottoman Turks

Turkish followers of Islam who founded the Ottoman Empire in the 1300s; the empire eventually included large areas of eastern Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa

* plague

highly contagious and often fatal disease that wiped out much of Europe's population in the mid-1300s and reappeared periodically over the next three centuries; also known as the Black Death

* hierarchy

organization of a group into higher and lower levels

* monastic

relating to monasteries, monks, or nuns

* Jesuit

refers to a Roman Catholic religious order founded by St. Ignatius Loyola and approved in 1540

* patron

supporter or financial sponsor of an artist or writer