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LITHUANIA

BASIC DATA
Official Country Name:	Republic of Lithuania
Region:	Europe
Population:	3,620,756
Language(s):	Lithuanian, Polish,Russian
Literacy Rate:	98%
Compulsory Schooling:	9 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	5.4%
Foreign Students in National Universities:	370
Libraries:	1,478
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 225,701
	Secondary: 378,754
	Higher: 83,645
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 98%
	Secondary: 86%
	Higher: 31%
Teachers:	Primary: 14,095
	Secondary: 36,932
	Higher: 13,136
Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 16:1
	Secondary: 10:1
Female Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 96%
	Secondary: 88%
	Higher: 38%

HISTORY & BACKGROUND

Located on the Baltic Sea, Lithuania is bordered by Latvia to the north and Belorussia to the east and south. Poland is situated to the southwest of the country. The territory of Lithuania encompasses 65,200 square kilometers, 99 kilometers of which is located on the coastline. It is divided into 44 regions and 52 districts, with 92 cities and 22 urban-type settlements. The capital city is Vilnius.

The climate of Lithuania is considered to be transitional in nature, fluctuating between maritime and continental. It is a wet country, with moderate winters and summers. Lithuania makes up a lowland area comprised of many scattered lakes and very fertile soil. The lowest point of elevation is located at the Baltic Sea (0 kilometers), the highest point at Juozapines/Kalnas (292 kilometers).

According to statistics from July 2000, Lithuania's estimated population stands at 3,620,756, some 67 percent of which is between the ages of 15 to 64; 1.17 million are female and 1.26 million are male. The population growth rate is decreasing at .29 percent. The ratio of men to women is 0.88:1 respectively, with an average of 1.34 children born per woman.

The country is predominantly Lithuanian, with the natives making up nearly 81 percent of the country's population. Other represented nationalities include Russian (8.7 percent), Polish (7 percent), Belorussian (1.6 percent), and other (2.1 percent). The official language of the country is Lithuanian; however, because of the makeup in population, the Polish and Russian languages do hold a presence. Lithuania is astoundingly literate, with 98 percent of the population (15 and over) possessing the ability to read and write (CIA 2000).

In terms of the country's history, archeological evidence shows that the Baltic region, home to Lithuania, has been inhabited since the late Stone Age. By 1600 B.C., the area was linked by well-developed trade routes, predominantly used for the export of amber. Lithuania emerged as a state in the thirteenth century, shortly after the union of the main lands. In 1240, Mindaugas was named the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and by the end of the fourteenth century Lithuania emerged as one of the most powerful states in Europe. The successful defeat of their enemies resulted in an era of domination and territorial expansion.

German crusaders invaded the pagan state for almost two whole centuries. Despite the German effort, the country remained unconquered. As an example of their quest for independence, the Lithuanians built castles that are continually admired today for their defensive construction. In 1410, Lithuania, with the help of neighboring Poland, battled the Teutonic Knights in defense of their liberty. In addition, Lithuania was also able to withstand attacks by the Mongols-Tatars from the West and assist other European nations with their fight against the Golden Horde (CIA 2000).

In 1569, the Union of Lublin sealed the Poland-Lithuania Union into a commonwealth (Rzecspospolita); later in the seventeenth century, Lithuania became one of its three provinces. Following the partitioning of the Commonwealth in 1795, Lithuania was incorporated into Russia and spent more than 100 years battling tsarist rule. It was not until February 16, 1918 that Lithuania proclaimed its independence and moved to restore its statehood. Through establishment of diplomatic relations, the country was soon recognized by Europe and some of the largest states in the world. It remained independent for only 22 years, before it was once again occupied by the Soviet Union. Lithuania fought bravely for its independence against the Soviet occupiers, despite being drastically outnumbered. Their desire for independence was not subdued even after 50 years of occupation. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union on March 11, 1990, Lithuania proclaimed its statehood once again. The old clock of the Cathedral tower strikes, counting the hours of freedom in order to remind the Lithuanians of their struggle. The sounds are transmitted by radio to the nation every morning.

CONSTITUTIONAL & LEGAL FOUNDATIONS

The supreme legislative authority now resides with the Parliament (Seimas), as a result of the Republic of Lithuania reclaiming its statehood on March 11, 1990. It no longer recognizes itself as the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. Political life was unstable for more than a year following Lithuania's independence because of the delineation of powers within the parliament.

The Parliament contains 141 seats, 71 of which are directly elected by popular vote, 70 of which are elected by proportional representation; each member serves a four-year term. The Supreme Court judges, as well as the Court of Appeals judges are appointed by the Parliament. Laws can be adopted by either referendum or a vote in the Council of Ministers. The prime minister, deputy prime minister, and cabinet are all accountable to this council. For administrative purposes, Lithuania is divided into 10 districts.

In this parliamentary democracy, there is a chief of state, President Valdas Adamkus (since February 26, 1998). The executive branch is comprised of a premier, Andrius Kubilius (since November 12, 1999) and a council of ministers that is appointed by the president on the nomination of the premier. The premier of Lithuania is appointed by the president contingent upon the approval of the Parliament. The most recent election (1997) resulted in Valdas Adamkus receiving 50.4 percent of the vote, narrowly defeating Arturas Paulauskas and consequently becoming Lithuania's current president.

Lithuania houses a wide range of political parties some of which include the Christian Democratic Party (LKDP), the Democratic Labor Party of Lithuania (LDDP), the Democratic Party (DP) and the Homeland Union/Conservative Party (TS) (CIA 2000).

Russia's military continues to be a dominant force in Lithuania. Thus, the government's most pressing foreign policy issue remains the quest to diminish Russia's presence in the country. The antiaircraft network that extends from Estonia to Lithuania is the only base of strategic importance to the Russians. However, an estimated 23,000 officers and soldiers, as well as Russia's only paratroop training base remain near Kaunas, Lithuania. In addition, Russia's only access to their military region of Kaliningrad is via the 188 mile (303 kilometers) border they share with Lithuania.

Lithuania's recent political history begins with the approval of a constitution by 53 percent of eligible voters in a national referendum on October 25, 1992. As a result of this election, the majority of parliamentary seats were handed to the Democratic Labor Party (LDDP), headed by leader Algirdas Brazauskas. Brazauskas won the presidential election of February 1993 over a non-LDDP coalition led by the independent candidate, Stasys Lozoraitis.

Since that time, Lithuania's government has worked diligently to become more congruent with Western requirements. A populist referendum in favor of the indexation of peoples' savings was defeated in August 1994 by the successful lobbying of the LDDP government. Democratic Labor Party candidates were defeated, however, by the opposition in the nationwide elections of March 1995. The significant issues leading to the defeat were noted as the lack of effort in promoting prosperity and combating corruption and organized crime.

Lack of supervision and regulation over the banking sector of Lithuania were the primary causes of the bubbling financial crisis in December 1995. This consequently led to the resignation of Adolfas Slezevicius as Prime Minister and LDDP Chairman in February 1996. The replacement, Mindaugas Stankevicius, spearheaded the comprehensive banking sector bailout plan. However, these measures were not enough to convince voters in the 1996 rounds of parliamentary elections. The Conservative Party gained 70 of the 141 seats, with another 16 seats going to its coalition partner, the Christian Democrats. This coalition established a new government in early December 1996 and won a sizeable majority in the nationwide elections held in March 1997. The President, Valdas Adamkus, elected by popular vote, was sworn in on February 25, 1998. The president is elected for a five-year period, with a maximum of two consecutive terms. The next elections will be held in 2003 (U.S. Department of State 1998).

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM—OVERVIEW

The people of Lithuania are highly educated. Nearly the entire population between the ages of 15 to 39 has completed basic schooling. A major overhaul of Lithuanian education practices followed the country's restoration of independence in 1991. The system of primary-secondary-higher education was developed between the two world wars with the Soviets further expanding this to adult education. The Soviets highly politicized philosophy of education was evaluated and replaced. Independent Lithuania no longer adheres to the "Soviet school" philosophy. It now focuses on an ideology based on Lithuanian history and culture. However, the system still utilizes some Soviet organizational methods (U.S. Department of State 1998).

Education between the ages of 7 and 16 is compulsory and free of charge at all levels, as a result of the 1992 Constitution. The three levels of Lithuanian education include: comprehensive (from 7 to 16 years of age), vocational and schools of further education (from 16 to 18), and higher education. Furthering this delineation, there are three types of comprehensive schools: primary (grades 1 to 4), principal (grades 5 to 9), and secondary (grades 10 to 12). There are over 2,000 schools across these levels. Preschool is also available should parents wish to enroll their children.

Schools are located in all cities, towns, and villages. The more remote schools generally begin with first grade and end with fifth or ninth grade. Students are likely to attend a public institution for primary and secondary school, where they are commonly enrolled in art and music courses in addition to their academic schedule. Following secondary education (grade 12), the majority of students go on to vocational schools; the next largest percentage of students attend college-like institutions. The remaining students continue at polytechnical institutions.

Following Lithuania's independence from the Soviet Union, more than 67 percent of Lithuanian students now attend religious classes in general schools. In addition to the religious courses, students also study history, mathematics, science, ethics, Lithuanian, and Lithuanian literature. Foreign language study includes English, German, Russian, French, and Latin for accelerated classes. Foreign language study begins in the fifth grade, with English as the primary language of study.

Teachers now offer a wider variety of subjects and de-emphasize the teaching of Russian history and the Russian language. Teachers are beginning to attend summer workshops, where they can learn new teaching practices (Kudirka 1991).

The academic year runs for 10 months from September through June. There is a summer break from July 1 to September 1. Classes are primarily taught in Lithuanian, although in closed communities of ethnic minorities, the state does provide support for education in the native language. Parents are permitted to choose the school of general education according to its language of instruction (EuroEducation Net 1996) (NAFSA 1991).

Ethnic minorities that do not live in an established closed community are provided with optional classes, as well as Sunday school should they like to improve upon their native language skill. Lithuanian language and literature are taught in all non-Lithuanian educational institutions.

Lithuania has established goals for its educational system. They are as follows:

1. To develop mental and physical abilities; to lay firm the foundations of morality and a healthy way of life; and to develop intellect while providing conditions for the further development of individuality
2. To offer children both general and professional education corresponding to the current level of science and culture
3. To provide the opportunity for the residents of Lithuania to continue their education
4. To clarify personal rights and to instill a sense of civic duty to the family, nation, society, and the State of Lithuania, as well as the need to participate in the cultural, social, economic, and political life of the Republic (NAFSA 1991).

PREPRIMARY & PRIMARY EDUCATION

According to the Law on Education for the Republic of Lithuania, children under the age of seven are permitted to enroll in nursery school and kindergarten upon the request of the parent or guardian, whereas orphans and neglected children are enrolled in childcare institutions. Lithuania encourages education in the home for children under the age of seven and provides benefits to those who comply through methodological, diagnostic, and consultation assistance.

Additionally, general secondary education is acquired in three stages over a period of twelve years. The three stages of schooling are divided into separate administrative units: primary, principal, and secondary schooling. The secondary school of general education establishes the duration of study for these schools (NAFSA 1991).

The primary school works to create a concrete and integrated view of the world for the child. During the primary school years, students become acclimated to their surroundings and learn basic reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. The basics of a foreign language are taught and artistic expression is encouraged. The children's main methods of learning are through example, experience, activity, and direct contact. One teacher generally teaches all the basic subjects, while cooperating closely with the students' families.

The system changes for grades 5 through 8, where different instructors teach different subjects. Students gain a deeper understanding of the native language and literature, mathematics, and natural science, while the learning of a second foreign language commences. Social studies are introduced into the curriculum, with compulsory and elective subjects making up the remaining of the set of courses. Students begin to specialize at the seventh to eighth grade level.

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Secondary schools comprise grades 10 to 12. There is an increased emphasis on promoting abstract thinking. Previously taught material is reviewed in order to ensure that the students meet the necessary standard. Students have the ability to choose from a wider variety of courses, and either the basic or advanced level of each course. Upon completion of the tenth grade, students receive a certificate that lists the completed subjects, and the level of the courses taken.

Teaching becomes more specialized in the eleventh and twelfth grades. Pupil's interests are taken into consideration and courses in liberal arts, natural science, technology, economics, and commerce are offered. Emphasis is also placed on independent study.

A secondary school leaving diploma is granted following the completion of five to seven examinations. These compulsory exams include the native language and literature, mathematics, a foreign language, and one of the chosen electives. Students are able to choose basic or advanced levels at the time of the examination. The leaving diploma signifies the completion of comprehensive schooling (Barrett 1995/96).

General education may also be acquired at the appropriate vocational schools. There are vocational schools (i.e., part-time or evening schools) for adults who wish to complete their general education. Technical education is also available through vocational institutions. This vocational training is coordinated with general education regulations and upon completion, may be furthered at advanced training and retraining facilities. The vocational institutions can develop technical and agricultural skills, as well as the skills needed in the commercial and trade sectors. Persons over the age of 14 are permitted to attend these institutions to complete their comprehensive schooling, while learning a vocation.

School is conducted in hospitals for children who are in need of care. These children, in addition to those schooled in the home, are educated in accordance with the procedures established by the Ministry of Culture and Education. Special schools of general education are established for children with antisocial behavioral traits (NAFSA 1991).

HIGHER EDUCATION

Lithuania provides higher education through its state-run, private universities and nonuniversity establishments. The completion of secondary education is a prerequisite for enrollment in one of these institutions of higher learning. Lithuania is home to six independent universities; three are general universities, and the other three are specialized. Additionally, there are 29 research institutions conducting fundamental research on university campuses. Applied research is predominantly conducted in nonuniversity institutions. The Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania established the Law on Science and Studies in February of 1991. This law set the tone for the reformation of the higher education system. It moved to define the guidelines for a transition towards a more western approach to higher education (EuroEducation Net 1996).

There are various stages of higher education studies administered through several organizational facilities. Higher vocational and technical studies schools train skilled workers (technical, agricultural, commercial, and trade) at several levels of proficiency. Courses taken at the Aukstesnioji moykla (postsecondary vocational schools) last two years.

There are different levels of university study. Level one is referred to as the Bakalauras stage, with a bachelor's degree program that lasts up to four years. This includes general theory, specialty theory, and practical subject modules, which can lead to a professional qualification. The second stage is referred to as the Magistras. This master's program entails a more in-depth theory and special subject module, as well as interdisciplinary courses. These studies can last up to three years with a submission of a thesis required. The third stage, Daktaras, is a doctoral program that is generally completed in five years, the first three being reserved for course-work. The final stage, Habilituotas Daktaras, is considered the highest of academic research qualifications and is awarded to holders of doctoral degrees by institutes of science and research (EuroEducation Net 1996).

Lithuania's leading institute of higher learning is Vilnius University. Other Lithuanian universities include Vytautas Magnus in Kaunas and the new university in Klaipeda. These establishments were founded based on the American model by Lithuanians in the United States. Lithuanian universities differ from their Soviet counterparts in that they are completely self-governing and are guaranteed their independence by law (U.S. Department of State 1998).

Higher education has maintained a significant role in Lithuania's history. The scientists, intelligencia, writers, and authors have always been considered the jewel of Lithuania. The first school of higher education was established in Lithuania in 1539 with help from reformist Abraomas Kulvietis and the approval of Queen Bona. However, religious differences between the Catholics and the Protestants resulted in King Sigismund the Elder closing the doors of the school in 1542.

A Jesuit college was established in the capital city of Vilnius in 1570. The success of this university led to the creation of the University of Vilnius, Alma Mater Vilnensis, in 1579. The history of the University of Vilnius coincides with the history of Lithuania. Until the closing of the university in 1832, the institution was one of the most authoritative institutions of higher learning throughout eastern and central Europe. It was the only source of science education for not only Lithuania but its northern neighbors as well. Lithuania's education and science were concentrated in Kaunas between the two world wars. Many institutions of higher learning were established there; whereas in Polish-occupied Vilnius, the old university was revived and named after King Stephan Bathroy.

Lithuania maintains 15 establishments of higher learning: 6 universities, 7 academies, and 2 institutes. The number of enrolled students reached a record high in 1980, with 17,000 students, although as of 1996 that number decreased to 10,000 students. The prestige of a university degree began to decline when Lithuania declared its independence in 1991. However, in 1996 that idea was reversed and Lithuania witnessed three applicants for each university spot. Despite the difficulties one can face upon acceptance to an institute of higher learning, approximately 40 percent of all secondary graduates continue on to university.

Lithuania joined UNESCO (convention on the recognition of studies, diplomas, and degrees concerning higher education in countries belonging to the European region) in 1994. University studies now cover over 200 specialties. Approximately 7 percent of the state budget is dedicated to education, which enables 75 percent of university education to be subsidized by the government. Lithuania also has educational support through the Lithuanian Open Society founded by American philanthropist, George Soros in 1990. Several scientific research centers now work on the basis of private initiative or Western foundations (Education in Lithuania 2000).

ADMINISTRATION, FINANCE, & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

The educational administration of Lithuania is organized in accordance with Article 26 of the Republic of Lithuania's Law on Education.

Educational institutions of the Republic of Lithuania shall function according to plans and programs approved by the Ministry of Culture and Education or in coordination with the order established by the Ministry. The contents and methods of teaching must correspond to the given tasks of educational institutions, as well as to the needs of society. At educational institutions, it shall be prohibited to propagandize hostility (racial, ethnic, religious, or social) or superiority, which runs counter to the universally recognized principles of international law and humanism.

Schools of general education of ethnic minorities may be supplemented by the elements of ethnic culture.

At secondary schools of general education, languages other than Lithuanian shall be taught depending on the preference of the parents and the capacity of the school.

Militaristic subjects shall not be taught at a school of general education.

Article 28 of the Law on Education details the regulations of the activities of educational institutions:

In their activities, State educational institutions shall guide their activities in accordance with the regulations of the institution as approved by their local government. These regulations shall contradict neither the other laws of the Republic of Lithuania nor the general regulations of the activities of educational institutions.

The regulations of private educational institutions shall be coordinated in accordance with the order established by the Ministry of Culture and Education and shall be registered with local governments.

Public schools of general education, vocational schools, and colleges of the Republic of Lithuania are free of cost. Institutions of education that are maintained or assisted by the state, in addition to public preschool institutions (with the exception of childcare institutions) are partly funded by the Lithuanian government. The payment for private educational facilities is arranged by individual agreements, with the state providing stipends for those students in need of financial aide.

There are three primary sources of educational funds in Lithuania. They are as follows:

1. Voluntary payments of persons, organizations, and enterprises
2. Income from the activities of the fund
3. Funds and materials donated by foreign state organizations and citizens, as well as by international institutions (NAFSA 1991).

Lithuania continues to maintain some aspects of the Soviet system, with the separation of research and teaching functions in education. Research is primarily conducted at the 17 institutes of the Academy of Sciences. Activity remains weak in the humanities and social sciences but excels in other areas, with the most notable research conducted in the study of Baltic linguistics. Studies in probability theory at Vilnius University are internationally known with other notable advances made in semiconductor physics and chemistry, biochemistry, and genetics. Lithuania is most notably recognized throughout the world because of its contributions to the area of biotechnology (U.S. Department of State 1998).

NONFORMAL EDUCATION

Distance learning and adult education serve as Lithuania's most prominent forms of nonformal education. Lithuania's distance higher education consists of programs that are conducted by way of transmitting specially prepared learning materials for the student through the postal service. The Ministry of Education also has licensed 90 institutions to offer nonformal studies. There are nearly 700 institutions listed in the Register of the Ministry of Economy for adults. Sixty-three state-owned, 288 joint-stock companies, 271 individual companies, and 46 foreign investment companies comprise these institutions. Additionally, the universities have set up special departments to help nontraditional students with training and retraining in the fields of pedagogy, psychology, and special education (EuroEducation Net 1996).

TEACHING PROFESSION

Preprimary and other basic level instructors are trained for three to four years at various pedagogical colleges and universities, including Vilnius Pedagogical University, Klaipeda University, and Siauliai Pedagogical Institute. Secondary school instructors are trained at many of the institutes mentioned, in addition to Vilnius University and Vytautas Magnus University (in Kaunas). Four-year programs are available and admission to such a program is based on a bachelor's degree and at least one year of teaching experience. However, a master's degree guarantees an instructor a position at the secondary level. (EuroEducation Net 1996).

A doctorate is required for anyone wanting to achieve full professor status at an institute of higher learning. A master's is required to begin a career as a lecturer. There are four distinctions of staff in the universities of Lithuania. The lowest teaching position is that of the Asistentas (Assistant). A master's degree is required and research activity is preferred to obtain this position. The second type of instructor is known as the Vyresnysis Asistentas (Senior Assistant). This senior position of teaching is held without a doctorate and can be occupied for two terms. There is no opportunity to teach master's students in this position and research activity is required. A docent (Associated Professor) should hold a Docentas (doctorate) or educational award. The highest level of teaching position is known as the Professorius (Professor). A person holding this position must obtain the highest scientific degree or highest educational award available. A number of publications are required, in addition to a leading position in a branch of investigation performed at the department of study (Profile of the Lithuanian Higher Education System 2000).

The Law on Education has established a six-part set of rights for its educators. According to Article 23, teachers have the right to:

1. Freely choose the manner of organization of teaching activities
2. Improve their qualification and receive a corresponding salary in accordance with the established order
3. Suitable working conditions
4. Yearly prolonged vacations (48 working days)
5. Take part in the self-government of state educational institutions provided that they are not employees of the administration of that institution
6. Join social organizations

In addition to the set of rights a teacher possesses, the educator is also bound by a set of duties. Teachers must:

1. Develop the students' norms of morality and guarantee safe and sound development of their personal abilities
2. Aim to make development programs comprehensive for the pupils
3. Adhere to the principles of pedagogical ethics
4. Participate in activities outside of school in order to further develop the cultural and personal interests of the pupils
5. Improve their qualifications
6. Cooperate with the parents and guardians in settling questions of a child's education (NAFSA 1991)

SUMMARY

As Lithuania regained its independence in 1990, it became the front-runner among post-Soviet states to reform its education system. Vaiva Vebra, the Deputy Minister of Education, stated in December 1999 that much effort had been devoted to transforming the educational system because of the country's belief in the Jeffersonian maxim, "Education is the anvil upon which democracy is forged." She also stated that the key component to successful reform is the introduction of critical thinking into the system. Preparing students for "independent decision making as adults in a civil society and market based economy" has become the new goal for the educational system. There are newly written textbooks or textbooks translated from Western sources, as well as "break-through schools" that are encouraged to "pull away from the mainstream."

Economic difficulties have hindered Lithuania's progress. The government was forced to cut educational spending by 17 percent in 1999, but Vebra maintains that the teachers' commitment to education will enable the momentum of educational reform to persevere, despite the system's lack of funds ("Lithuania in the Vanguard of Education Reform" 1999).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barrett, Wilson. "Lithuania." European Education 27 (4) (Winter 1995/96): 2.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). CIA Factbook: Lithuania. January 1, 2000.

Crighton, Johanna, and Richard West. "Examination Reform in Central and Eastern Europe: issues and trends." Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice 6 (2) (1999): 271.

Doing Business in Lithuania. Los Angeles, California: Economic Affairs Council, 1993.

Education in Lithuania. December 2000. Available from www.randburg.com.

EuroEducation Net. Lithuania. International Association of Universities, 1996. Available from www.euro education.net.

Kudirka, Juozas. The Lithuanians. Vilnius, Lithuania: Lithuania Folk Culture Center, 1991.

"Lithuania in the Vanguard of Education Reform." Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. December 13, 1999.

LITNET. Academical and Research Network Lithuania. 2000. Available from www.litnet.lt.

NAFSA: Association of International Educators, Republic of Lithuania: Law on Education (Vilnius, 1991) No. I-1489.

Profile of the Lithuanian Higher Education System. NHES, 18 December 2000. Available from http://ortelius.unifi.it/.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1998.

—Mara Iutcovich and Mark Iutcovich