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MACEDONIA

BASIC DATA
Official Country Name:	The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Region:	Europe
Population:	2,041,467
Language(s):	Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish, Serbo-Croatian
Literacy Rate:	NA
Academic Year:	September-June
Number of Primary Schools:	1,086
Compulsory Schooling:	8 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	5.1%
Foreign Students in National Universities:	313
Libraries:	122
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 260,917
	Secondary: 83,746
	Higher: 30,754
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 99%
	Secondary: 63%
	Higher: 20%
Teachers:	Primary: 13,594
	Secondary: 5,136
	Higher: 2,462
Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 19:1
	Secondary: 17:1
Female Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 98%
	Secondary: 62%
	Higher: 22%

HISTORY & BACKGROUND

The contemporary country of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), referred to here as Macedonia, is a small, democratic nation nestled on the Balkan peninsula with Albania to the west, Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south, and Yugoslavia (Kosovo and Serbia) to the north. In terms of land mass, with 25,333 square kilometers (9,781 square miles), Macedonia is roughly the size of the American state of Vermont. Macedonia, which is a multi-party democracy, became a republic in 1991 when it broke off from the federation of states that had comprised Yugoslavia after World War II.

Macedonia (Makedonija in the slavic Macedonian language), has a population of 2,041,467 people, with a population growth rate of 0.04 percent. The country's rural population is about 38 percent. Macedonia is comprised of 66.6 percent ethnic Macedonians, 22.7 percent ethnic Albanians, 4.0 percent ethnic Turks, 2.2 percent Romanys, 2.1 percent Serbs, and 2.4 percent other minorities such as Vlachs and Bosnians. However, any census taken to date remains disputed by all parties.

The percentage of Gross National Product (GNP) that is spent on education is approximately 5.1 percent. The literacy rate in Macedonia is somewhat different for males and females, with 94 percent of males and 84 percent of females aged 10 and older with the ability to read and write.

Geographic Macedonia, to be distinguished from today's nation of Macedonia (FYROM), is the entire Balkan region stretching northwest to northeast from the Sâr mountains to the Osogoveska mountains to the Rila mountains, over to the eastern Pirin and Rhodope mountains. Across to the southwest, geographic Macedonia is cupped by the Pindus mountains, and to the south is Mount Olympus, Greece, and the Aegean Sea. There is, however, little agreement as to the precise borders of geographic Macedonia.

Macedonia has a complicated history in part because it has long been the crossroads of Eastern Europe. Ancient invaders traversed Asia Minor and Europe, first bringing the Vlachs (descendants of the Romanic Thracians) to mix with Greeks and smaller indigenous tribes. The Albanians inside Macedonia's current western border could be the descendants of the early Illyrians and possibly also the Thracians. In Classical times, Macedonia was permeated by Greek influences, although total control of Macedonia by Greece was inhibited by the harsh geographic and climatic differences between the two regions. The Turks ruled Macedonia for 500 years during the Ottoman Empire. Later, rule over Macedonia changed hands among the varied states of Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece. When the Ottoman Empire fell in the early twentieth century, Macedonia came under Serbian rule.

After World War I, geographic Macedonia was divided among Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria. Macedonians in what had become Greek territory (Aegean Macedonia) were penalized for speaking Macedonian and many were expelled. During World War II, Yugoslavia disintegrated into civil war. Bulgaria regained portions of Vardar Macedonia, eastern Aegean Macedonia, and a small part of western Aegean Macedonia. Following WWII, Josip Broz Tito gained power in Yugoslavia and incorporated the remaining Macedonian territory into Yugoslavia. Thus, by the end of WWII, several separate republics had been incorporated into Yugoslavia; Macedonia was the southernmost of these republics.

The Yugoslav government began developing a system of quality, formal education that was similar to systems found in western Europe, but it also had some aspects similar to systems in the Soviet bloc countries, such as required courses in Marxism and National Defense. By the end of the twentieth century, conflict in Kosovo and Albanian terrorist activity heightened tensions between Macedonians and Albanians inside Macedonia.

CONSTITUTIONAL & LEGAL FOUNDATIONS

The constitutional provisions relating to education are found in Macedonia's Constitution of 1994. The Constitution includes systemic laws on primary, secondary, and higher education. The provisions of the Constitution and the law have been implemented through separate by-laws and other ministerial acts executing the laws. For example, for primary school, one such act is the document defining the content and organization of primary education, adopted by the Pedagogical Council of the Republic of Macedonia. The decision of what to teach at schools is shared between lower level governmental agencies and supervisory groups in which teachers from schools and universities participate.

Article 48, clause 4 of the Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia regulates the education of ethnic minorities. Members of Macedonia's various ethnic nationalities have the right to instruction in their language throughout primary and secondary education, as determined by law. In schools where education is carried out in the language of a nationality, the Macedonian language is also studied.

Macedonian is the language of education in 803 primary schools with 182,465 pupils; Albanian is in 281 primary schools with 71,490 pupils; Turkish is in 54 schools with 5,491 pupils; and Serbian is in 14 schools with 751 pupils. Recent legislation provides for the Vlach and Romany languages to be taught in schools as well.

Macedonian language instruction is also delivered in 89 secondary schools with 67,202 pupils, whereas Albanian instruction is in 18 schools with 7,218 pupils, while Turkish instruction occurs in 4 schools with 383 pupils. Recent legislation also allows for Serbian secondary schools but, due to low numbers of pupils, no such schools were opened as of 2000.

Main laws governing higher education include the Law on Vocational Education, enacted January 16, 1985, which regulates universities, colleges, and academies; and the Law on the University of March 1, 1994, which deals only with universities. The administrative structure of higher education is overseen by the Ministry of Education and Physical Culture (MEPC).

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM—OVERVIEW

Macedonia's current educational system was developed during the years in which Macedonia was a member state of Yugoslavia; it is a hybrid of systems common to most of western Europe. Textbooks and other aspects of instruction that reflect the years of Soviet influence are being phased out. Education is compulsory through eighth grade. In 1994 there were 1,067 elementary schools in Macedonia, with a total of 7,175 classes. Of those, 718 were ethnic Macedonian schools, attended by 188,051 ethnic Macedonian pupils. The 279 ethnic Albanian schools taught 72,121 ethnic Albanian pupils, and the remaining 55 elementary schools were attended by 5,342 ethnic Turkish children. The teachers for these schools were composed of 8,990 ethnic Macedonians, 3,571 ethnic Albanians, and 288 ethnic Turks.

The grading system in secondary school is on a five-point scale, with 5 as "excellent." In higher education, the grading system generally used for marking is on a scale of 5 through 10, with 6 as the minimum passing mark and 5 as the lowest mark on the scale.

About 70 percent of Macedonia's population completes secondary or higher (tertiary) education. In 1994 there were 97 high schools in Macedonia, with a total of 2,296 classes. Of these, 90 were ethnic Macedonian, with 2,218 classes; 5 were ethnic Albanian, with 72 classes; and two were ethnic Turkish, with 6 classes. There were 67,975 Macedonian, 2,535 Albanian, and 186 Turkish high school students. Of the high school teachers, 4,060 were ethnic Macedonians, 148 were ethnic Albanians, and 19 were ethnic Turks.

In the Republic of Macedonia, there are two major universities: the Sts. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje and the St. Clement of Ohrid University in Bitola. Also, after years of protests by ethnic Albanians and much political and legal wrangling, a third university in Tetovo opened in 2001 for ethnic Albanian students and Albanian language instruction. While it remains a political flashpoint for ethnic conflict, it is now an accredited institution serving several thousand students. The Pedagogical Faculty trains teachers in the minority languages at all of Macedonia's universities. The two major universities employ 1,192 lecturers and 1,207 assistants. Sts. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, which was founded in 1949, and other institutes of higher learning provide schooling for students seeking degrees of bachelor of arts and higher.

Some private schools exist at the primary and secondary levels. The University of Tetovo is the only private institution of higher education in the Republic of Macedonia, and its ability to garner state funding remains to be seen, for reasons of political strife. The new Law on Higher Education provides the possibility to establish other private and public higher education institutions and prescribes the conditions for establishing, performing, and ending their activity.

PREPRIMARY & PRIMARY EDUCATION

Preschool starts at age three and lasts until age five when children typically enter into kindergarten. Compulsory education in Macedonia begins at age 7 and ends at age 16. The structure of the primary school system is twofold. Children ages 7 to 11 attend lower primary school, osnovno ucili&NA;te. Next, they enter the basic second stage and attend the upper primary school from ages 11 to 15. Instruction from primary school onward covers the customary foundational subjects, including mathematics, literature, native language, some foreign language instruction (usually English), history, and science.

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Secondary school education is provided by high schools, technical and other vocational schools, and art secondary schools. Education at a Gimnazija lasts four years, from ages 15 to 19. In the second half of the fourth year, pupils are supposed to write a project (maturska tema), defend it, and pass a written examination in their mother tongue on literature. The final examination is the Matura and, after completing and passing all of the items above, students will receive their diploma.

The technical schools (tehnicki ucili&NA;te) and other vocational schools (ucili&NA;te za zanimanja) train technicians for different professions—medical, financial and others. Students who attend technical schools usually attend from ages 15 to 18, whereas students who attend vocational or art schools (umetnicko ucili&NA;te) attend from ages 15 to 19. In some schools, there are programs of shorter duration (from several months to three years of training) for different occupations and crafts. Entry to higher education is on the basis of the Secondary School Diploma, the Matura, plus an entrance examination.

HIGHER EDUCATION

Higher education study lasts from two to six years. Courses for vocational training on a college level (vi&NA;he obrazovanie) are provided and last for two years, whereas courses offered at schools ranging between four and six years are in the domain of higher education (visoko obrazovanie.

There are two major universities in the Republic of Macedonia: Sts. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje and the St. Clement of Ohrid University in Bitola. The Sts. Cyril and Methodius University consists of 23 schools, whereas the St. Clement of Ohrid University has 4 constituent schools and 2 colleges of further education. The third, and newest institution of higher learning, the controversial University of Tetovo, will educate students in two general branches—teacher education and public administration.

Three institutions in the Republic of Macedonia are devoted to scientific work: the Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, the Sts. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, and St. Clement of Ohrid University in Bitola. The Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, established in 1967, is the highest scholarly institution in the country. The scientific work of the Academy is done in its two departments: the Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Center and the Energy and Computer Studies Research Center. The institutes of the university are engaged in various scholarly and research activities in the fields of the humanities, sciences, medicine, technical engineering, and agriculture. There are, in addition, 14 independent scientific and research institutions employing 207 specialists and researchers.

Higher education is provided by colleges and pedagogical academies offering two-year courses, whereas university faculties (univerzitet) and institutes offer four to six-year courses in a range of disciplines. Upon successful completion of higher education courses at faculties/institutes, students are awarded a diploma with professional titles (e.g., engineer, lawyer, or teacher at the lower (college) level; graduate engineer, graduate lawyer, or graduate teacher at the higher (faculty/institute) level). The exact duration of studies leading to higher level diplomas depends on the type of faculty. The financing mechanisms of higher education are under revision.

The Ministry of Education and Physical Culture (MEPC) is responsible for formal recognition of studies completed and credentials awarded in foreign countries. At MEPC questions relating to the recognition of foreign credentials and studies in higher education are addressed.

A university represents the ultimate autonomous higher education, scientific and artistic institution. It is composed of schools, art schools, colleges of further education, and scientific institutes. A school represents a higher education institution conducting higher education activities, scientific research, and highly skilled labor in one or several related branches of study or expertise. Schools and art schools also engage in higher education activities in the shape of primary degree courses lasting between 4 to 6 years and postgraduate courses up to the doctorate level, as well as in scientific research and artistic work.

A college of further education represents a higher education institution conducting higher education in specific branches of study and highly skilled activity in one or several branches of expertise. Colleges of further education are engaged in providing primary degree courses lasting between two and four years, with study courses leading to higher/graduate diplomas and applied studies.

In addition to the elements of its admission policy, each university relies on provisions contained within the Directed Education Act. There are standards and criteria related to the admission of students, in coordination with its constituent schools. This also applies to preparing and publicizing the Advertised Announcement on the Admission of Students (AAAS) and other acts regulating this issue. The number of new students is determined by the MEPC through its own act, based on proposals submitted by schools and the university. Since the late 1990s, the number of students has been divided into two categories: students financed by the state and students who pay part of their tuition fee. The scope of both categories is limited with regards to every constituent school or department. These limits are also publicized within the AAAS.

The basic requirements for the admission of candidates to the schools of the university are results obtained at the entrance examination and academic achievements (covering secondary education). The ratio between these two factors amounts to 70 percent (entrance examination results) against 30 percent (marks obtained during secondary education).

As far as academic achievement throughout secondary education is concerned (carrying a maximum of 30 points), they represent the arithmetic mean of grade results obtained during all four years of education. Due to the specific natures of study courses offered by a higher education institution, it is possible to establish a separate evaluation procedure in case of relevant subjects. In order to increase quality standards related to studying, the minimum threshold of 60 obtained points has been introduced to ensure admission to higher education institutions.

Foreign students are not required to complete the entrance examination in order to be admitted to universities (except in case of the School of Architecture, the Colleges of Education, the School of Physical Culture, and the Art Schools). There are no quotas restricting their admission, and their application must be submitted during the sessions outlined within the Advertised Announcement on the Admission of Students into the first year of studies.

There are mechanisms in the higher education system to monitor and evaluate the knowledge of students through internal assessment conducted by a teacher or an examination commission. This assessment of students is based on their overall performance throughout the year and on results achieved at the examinations. Students achieving higher results in their studies are enabled to complete their education in a shorter period of time than the scheduled duration of a full-time study course and to obtain higher education for another professional profile through parallel studies.

The entrance examination consists of two components, one of them being a subject-based examination corresponding to the selected course of studies. Depending on the latter, the candidate may be given the right to choose out of two or more subjects while the other represents an examination of general education contents, including questions related to Macedonian language, literature, history, the social system, and music. These components are compulsory for each school and are based on the same program.

Postgraduate study courses are organized as specialist studies in the field of medicine, which may last up to 4 years, and as Master's degree study programs, which last 2 years. The duration of postgraduate study courses varies from one year of studies leading to a higher/graduate diploma to two years for a Master's degree.

A doctorate degree is granted upon successful defense of a scientific work. After a Master's degree has been obtained, the law on higher education sets forth the introduction of Doctorate studies, in addition to primary degree courses and postgraduate programs, as a way to obtain a Doctoral degree. The right to admission, (i.e., the registering of a Doctoral dissertation), may be granted to an individual in possession of a Master's degree or a higher/graduate diploma in medicine, provided the Doctoral candidate has publicly defended a thesis at the Master's level.

ADMINISTRATION, FINANCE, & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

The educational system and its administration of Macedonia is centralized. The funds to conduct the basic activity in primary, secondary, and higher education are provided through the budget of the Republic of Macedonia. Each higher education institution individually determines the required amount of funds in conformity with its annual program and then submits this to the Ministry of Education and Physical Culture for approval. Higher education institutions then receive one-twelfth of their allocation each month from the Ministry of Education and Physical Culture in order to implement their activity. These institutions then disburse these funds independently, based upon their internal by-laws.

NONFORMAL EDUCATION

There is a well-developed system of education for adults where they may complete their education and acquire special skills. Various institutions also organize a large number of courses, ranging from information science and computer science to the study of foreign languages. Special educational courses have also been organized in the fields of management and business. The Workers University (Rabutniski Univerzitet) offers a wide variety of courses for additional education. It does not award degrees but offers special courses leading to various certifications or qualifications.

New modes of distance learning are continually being developed. Some examples of the kinds of distance learning available through the Internet include: UTOS, which is a web-based distance education system for learning, testing, and assessment in Macedonian; MATEIS—Mathematical Electronic Interactive System, which is an education system for learning mathematics and informatics; and International Education and Resource Network, which enables students and teachers worldwide to conduct collaborative projects in Macedonian and English.

TEACHING PROFESSION

Training of primary or basic school teachers occurs at Pedagogical Academies and at Vi&NA;e Skole. Primary teachers (Grades one through four) and subject teachers (Grades five through eight) have different training. Pre-service training lasts two years. Subject teachers may follow a four-year course at a pedagogical academy or at a university.

Training of secondary school teachers lasts four years. Secondary school teachers are university graduates; courses last four years. Both elementary and secondary school teachers are obliged to attend in-service seminars.

Within the higher education system, there is an evaluation of the teaching and associate staff by means of conducting a re-election procedure over a certain period of time. The election and re-election of teaching, teaching-research, and associate staff is conducted by means of an open competition, in compliance with existing legal solutions. Full-time professors are re-elected each sixth year until they reach the age of 60. Associate professors, assistant professors, and professors at colleges of further education are re-elected each fifth year, while senior lecturers, lecturers, and associates are subjected to re-election every third year.

The election and re-election of candidates into teaching, teaching-research, and associate posts is conducted by the Teaching Council of each college of further education (the Academic Council of each faculty) based upon the assessments of the Review Commission (Recenziona komisija), as well as upon their own conclusions on the overall social, expert, scientific, and pedagogical achievements of the candidates. The Review Commission is established by the teaching and academic councils, and members of this Commission may be from among the teachers and research workers employed at the organization where the re-election is being conducted, as well as from among other teachers and research workers. Members of the Review Commission may not hold an academic post lower than the post for which a candidate is being selected.

SUMMARY

Macedonia's current education system was organized during the years it was a part of the Yugoslav federation. Today, Macedonia's (FYROM's) education system is slowly being transformed and improved to satisfy the needs of its developing economic and democratic political systems. Macedonia's educational system includes educating ethnic minorities in their own languages from primary schools to universities. The system includes primary schools, which are attended for a total of 8 years; secondary schools, which are attended for 3 or 4 years; and further education and university, attended for 3 or 4 years (with the exception of medical studies).

Macedonia, like other countries, especially in the Balkans, is struggling to adapt and manage its educational institutions to promote democracy and inter-ethnic harmony. Among areas that need to be addressed include the ways textbooks discuss issues ranging from the preservation of the environment to minority issues and national identity. While it has a long way to go towards making extensive reforms, the infusion of NGOs and projects supported by organizations such as UNESCO and Soros are supporting Macedonia in its mission to improve its educational system while fostering access and diversity among schools.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gorsevski, Ellen. "A Peaceful Warrior Speaks: Kiro Gligorov at the United Nations." Macedonian Review 27 (1997): 41-73.

Halpern, Joel and Kideckel. Neighbors at War: Anthropological Perspectives on Yugoslav Ethnicity, Culture, and History. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000.

Human Rights Watch. "Macedonia: Human Rights Developments." Human Rights Watch World Report 2001, 11 February 2001. Available from http://www.hrw.org/wr2k1/europe/macedonia.html.

International Association of Universities (IAU), Euro Education Net. "Macedonia," 11 February 2001. Available from http://www.euroeducation.net/prof/macenco.htm.

Kajevska, Ana A. "Environmental Update from the Republic of Macedonia: Environmental Education," 11 February 2001. Available from http://www.rice.edu/armadillo/.

Kramer, William. "Macedonia: Lessons in Tolerance After Conflict," 11 February 2001. Available from http://www.soros.org/.

—Ellen W. Gorsevski