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MADAGASCAR

BASIC DATA
Official Country Name:	Republic of Madagascar
Region:	Africa
Population:	15,506,472
Language(s):	French, Malagasy
Literacy Rate:	80%
Number of Primary Schools:	13,325
Compulsory Schooling:	6 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	1.9%
Foreign Students in National Universities:	678
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 1,638,187
	Secondary: 302,035
	Higher: 26,715
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 92%
	Secondary: 16%
	Higher: 2%
Teachers:	Primary: 44,145
	Secondary: 16,795
Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 37:1
	Secondary: 18:1
Female Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 91%
	Secondary: 16%
	Higher: 2%

HISTORY & BACKGROUND

Scientific evidence suggests that Madagascar originated from a severe earthquake that separated it from Africa about 200 million years ago. This separation from continental mainland caused the island to drift 250 miles northeast and settled for about 35-45 million years. The distance between Madagascar and the East African coastline is 1,000 miles. It is separated by Mozambique Channel, which is part of the Indian Ocean. The island is 228,880 square miles; it has a mountainous central plateau, coastal plain and a moderate or tropical climate. The original inhabitants of Madagascar are Austronesianas and Arabs. The human settlements were made about 2,000 years ago. Austronesians from Southeastern Asia were the first to arrive. Theoretically, ethnographic evidence shows that their materials culture of looms, smelting knowledge, canoes, architecture, food crops, and agricultural were known. Bantu-Kiswali speaking peoples of Eastern Africa, who may have brought the Austronecians with them, are linguistically and culturally proficient Kiswahili users.

Around A.D. 900, trade flourished between Eastern African peoples and the inhabitants of Madagascar. This may have influenced the evolution of the earliest site at Mahilaka on the West Coast. The fact that this site consisted of stone buildings and mosques characterize it with early mixed cultural integration between Africans, Arabs and Austranesians. The inhabitants of Madagascar had a low level of technology, which they used for the construction of simple arts and crafts, buildings, fishing, agriculture, and trade. They largely lived on nature's bounty. This made it possible for each of the three tribal races to avoid segregation by encouraging cooperation in order to combine efforts and obtain the available resources for their survival. As a result, an incredible synthesis of tradition, religion, language and genetics developed to create Madagascar's cultural uniformity and linguistic homogeneity for centuries. The main language which all the 18 tribal communities use is Malagasy.

The Asiatic and Austronesian element of the population is predominantly found in the central highland, which they inhabited since the thirteenth century A.D. Out of 14 million people, the Merino number about 3 million and the Betsilio 1.5 million. Both groups are rice growers who use irrigation for farming. The rest of the population consists of the African coastal peoples who rely on fishing and trade. Numerically, the Betsioni-Sakalava (1.5 million), the Tsimihety (1 million) and the Sakavala (1 million) are the largest groups. Before Madagascar became a French colony, the Merino had established and empire that existed for over 200 years, from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. The Merina state had large fortresses that were the central institutions governing smaller forts and states on the island.

In Madagascar, 50 percent of the people are adherents of traditional African religion. These religions are naturalistic because their followers emphasize the spiritual linkage between the living and the dead. Followers believe the dead join their ancestors in a variety of ranks of divinity. The ancestors are intensely concerned with the well being or bad luck of their living descendants. Within the Merina and Betsileo communities, the reburial of the famadihana (turning over the dead) is a highly celebrated ritual. In this ritual of reburial, the remains of the dead are exhumed and wrapped up in new silk attire. They are festively and ceremoniously reburied to display awe and honor and to perpetuate the dead's appeasement. The appeased will not develop retaliatory, ghostly, and punitive ramifications on the living.

Forty percent of Madagascar's citizens are Christians who are evenly divided into Catholics and Protestants. In spite of their Christian beliefs, most Christians incorporate the cult of the dead with their religious practices and beliefs. They celebrate their dead in church before they hold traditional burial ceremonies. Occasionally, they invite religious ministers to witness the ritual of famadihana.

Historically, an intense rivalry has existed between the largely coastal, under privileged Catholics (Cotiers) and the predominantly Protestant Merina who dominate the bureaucracy, corporate sector, and the professions. While authority seems to be highly centralized, attempts are underway to decentralize both authority and resources for the six provinces of Madagascar. Historical and cultural realities are regarded as important educational experience upon which modern scientific learning on the island is rooted.

CONSTITUTIONAL & LEGAL FOUNDATIONS

On their exploratory sea voyage to India, Portuguese explorers first visited Madagascar in 1500. English, French, and other European maritime nations also began to explore. Though this did not materialize in immediate European settlement on the Island, it was through this contact that firearms were introduced and used by the Merina to create their centralized empire. The power base of the empire was in the central Plateau within the island. For instance in 1794, King Andrianampoinimerina used this power to unite all the tribes in Madagascar. The king gave land to every subject, banned "slash and burn" forestry, and as it was mentioned earlier, introduced irrigation and rice production in the central plateau. Slash and burn was the traditional and destructive way of cutting forests, bushes and thickets and burning them to give way for cultivation of cereals. The method destroyed humus-making bacteria and exposed the soil to erosion and extermination of certain species of fauna and flora. However, in itself, this was agricultural education.

After the death of the King Andrianampoinimerina, his son, King Andrian-Ramada inherited the throne. Among his major accomplishments, he constructed a pro-western foreign policy agenda that enabled the island to establish diplomatic relations with major European powers. King Andrian-Ramada invited Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries from England and France. The missionaries, particularly the Protestants, built schools, churches and started their evangelistic work on the island. They taught the king's children about literacy, arithmetic, hygiene and the gospel of Jesus Christ. Ramada was an early beneficiary of missionary education.

Later, with the effort of more dynamic missionaries biblically centered Christian education was introduced into Madagascar in 1820. Ramada was one of the students in the Antana Narivo School. King Andrian-Ramada died in 1828. When his wife, Queen Ranavalona, inherited the throne, she expelled all the missionaries and executed a large number of opposition elements. Though she earned the title of "wicked queen," she was an effective empress. During her reign, Imerina missionaries built schools that brought literacy to 15,000 people. Queen Ranavalona died in 1860 and several weak dynastic rulers came after her. This weakness invited the French to attack Madagascar in 1883. The French fought for three years. Eventually Madagascar lost the war and became a French protectorate. In other words, the French domestically and diplomatically ruled Madagascar, although it was legally and officially not a colony. In 1895, the French massively invaded the island, conquered it and made it their full-fledged colony. The Merina monarchy was abolished and French rather than Malagasy became the official language of the island. With this conquest at hand, a new era of western imperialism had begun. The third, French Republic (1870-1914) witnessed France's new attitude in the acquisition of new colonial spheres of influence in Asia and Africa. Like the Americans and the British, the French wanted to use their republican and enlightenment ideas of progress and scientific learning in order to pacify and uplift the colonized peoples. This conception was viewed as France's universal mission commonly called mission civilisatrice. To colonize and govern Africa effectively, the colonized did not only become subjects with more duties than rights, but the violent exploitative and suppressive manner in which colonization was introduced appeared to defeat mission civilisatrice.

Based on France's colonial mission, the mission civilisatrice, the functionalist role of the French empire was to introduce education, modern science, architecture, medicine, technology and other elements of civilization in the colonies. Between 1895 and 1914, republican ideological and imperial ideas influenced French colonial decision making in West Africa and in Madagascar. This happened in two distinctive ways. First, on the basis of the 1789 universal and revolutionary ideas of "equality, liberty and fraternity," all people within the empire and outside it had the right to basic freedoms. In the light of the freedoms, Africans and the Malagasy in particular, needed to be free from all forms of oppression of which domestic and long-distance slavery, feudalism, ignorance and disease were classic. This kind of emancipatory declaration was issued during the early stages of colonization in order to prepare the subjects for an idealistic vision of democratic life. Second, the French imperial system continued to spread its republican ideological liberalism in order to improve public opinion. What they said and promised was to civilize and uplift the dispossessed races of humankind. What they practiced was conquest, enslavement, greed, national pride, and oppression in the name of civilizing the "other." They behaved this way in order to perpetuate colonial hegemony. Hegemony was strengthened by emphasizing difference as opposed to similarities between and among ethnic groups, races, sexes, classes, and gender for the purpose of rationalizing the principle of divide, conquer and rule.

The dual public education systems provided indigenous schools that offered vocational, practical, and nonprofessional education for the Malagasy, and elite schools modeled on those in France for the children of French citizens. Prior to World War II, the Malagasy were not intended to train for leadership and responsibility. However, after World War II educational reforms helped to prepare nationals for leadership and responsibility. After conquering, dividing, and starting to govern, colonial rulers felt that one of their special obligations was to liberate Africans from aspects indigenous domination and prepare them for a higher level of civilization. Since the mission civilisatrice could not be decreed or imposed, maintaining peace and security would enable the rulers to patiently and strategically improve the moral and material advancement of Africans. Improvement of African standards of living required sizable investments in communications; medicine and hygiene; elementary, secondary, and professional education; and agriculture. The ultimate goal was that civilized Africans would understand the essence of liberty, and create laws that would protect the rights and freedoms of the individual. Between 1895 and 1914, the third republic attempted to end feudal vestiges in West Algeria and Madagascar. The institution of hereditary chiefs and religious clericalism were viewed as aristocratic and antiquarian elements of pre-modernism which French republican liberation opposed with hostility. They opposed these institutions because they viewed them to be elements of tyranny from which African people needed to be liberated.

Historians, political scientists, and sociologists call French colonial rule direct rule. It was direct because the French directly imposed their metropolitan constitutional, theoretical, and philosophical ideas of governance on traditional, pre-scientific, and undemocratic African people, their organizations, culture, and institutions. Africans viewed it with suspicion and disdain because this form of contact with the West was more barbaric and disruptive than they anticipated. Unlike the more successful English system of indirect rule through which traditional chiefs were used as instruments of policy formulation and implementation in Africa, French direct rule was in essence more inhumane than the traditional system they were replacing. Lack of enough colonial administrators made it difficult for the rulers to raise taxes, enforce slave labor, and administer the legal code. Though these institutions and organizations were built, they lacked resources to elevate their physical, economic, and social standards. As a result, during the First and Second World Wars, France's poor rapport with its colonies could not enable it to effectively recruit Africans for its own defense. The French claimed that they were being viewed wrongly because what they were doing was universally consistent with the spirit of mission civilisatrice, i.e., abolish feudalism, ignorance, poverty, disease, and uplift mass philosophical and constitutional life. As of 2001, these problems are more highly pronounced in Africa than when the French came and left.

The French mission civilisatrice claimed to attack problems such as feudalism, ignorance, poverty, and disease. However, the same French administrative system employed extraordinary and excessive elements of punishment, free and forced slave labor. Additionally, they made Africans subjects with duties rather than citizens who had rights. This has been viewed as a racist strategy used to deal with people who were different in the name of "equality, liberty, and fraternity" of all people.

The French empire denied women of the right to vote and reduced their role to that of reproduction and domesticity. The criteria for French citizenship included identifying their place of birth, residence, proof of devotion to France, occupation or profession in French colonial administration, knowledge of French language, good financial standing, high moral standards, having no criminal record, having never been bankrupt, certificate of middle school education and proof of payment of taxes by those who owned properly. In brief, most Africans who qualified for French citizenship were elite people who obeyed the law and owned property. Most subjects never qualified for French citizenship.

French colonial imperialism was more repressive and hypocritical rather than consistent with the principles of its republican ideology and the mission civilisatrice. For instance, French colonial officials used coercion to make Africans provide free labor and justified the behavior as an unpalatable but short-term expedient for the inculcation of the work ethic. Subjects were subjected to prestations (work taxes) that were similar to the feudal corvé in France. The 1912 decree legalized the prestations. This kind of forced free labor was oppressive colonial exploitation which parallels the feudal system (corvée) experienced by the French under the ancien régime.

Officially, the French ruled Madagascar for 64 years. Within this period, they abolished slavery and slave trade, sizably contributed to reasonable growth in education and health, and controlled epidemics. The French language was made official. To counteract the earlier influence of British Protestantism, Roman Catholic cultural and religious institutions were given preeminence in the country. These institutions included schools, churches, hospitals, and clinics. Economically, Madagascar's economy was developed and integrated with that of France. The colony became an exporter of raw materials such as rice, cloves, and minerals. Madagascar became an independent nation in 1960.

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM—OVERVIEW

The foundation of modern Malagasy education is rooted in nineteenth century Protestant and Catholic colonial experience discussed earlier in the article. The modern education system of Madagascar is divided into elementary, secondary, adult and higher education levels. Because of the French policy of assimilation, educational institutions adopted French curricula, structures, standards and philosophical operational outlook. It is instructive to observe how each level has evolved and functions since independence.

PREPRIMARY & PRIMARY EDUCATION

Unlike the schooling systems of other countries in the world, elementary education takes 12 years in Madagascar. The Malagasy have adopted the same system but did not adapt it creatively and economically. Between 1960 and 1972, the social democratic party of Madagascar (PSD) government's policy of education emphasized expansion of the educational enterprise. It was thought that an expanded education which produced a large educated population could not only replace the expatriates, but such locally and culturally enriched educated people were essential for economic and political development of the nation.

In 1958 the Merina had a conspicuous advantage over other ethnic groups. The number of elementary school students in the Antananarivo region where the Merina are dominant was 110,500. There were 30,000 in either Toliary or Mahajanga provinces. Throughout the island, literacy was 65 percent among the Merina, 22 percent among the Betsimisaraka on the east coast, 22 percent among the Sakalava on the west coast, and 5 percent among the Antantroy in the south. The percentages of literacy in the less dominant geopolitical groups on the island were negligible. In the same regions, the percentages of those who were fluent in French were 25 percent, 6 percent, 5 percent, and about 2 percent, respectively. These percentages showed elements of extreme inequality in educational opportunity. To address this problem, the PDS government provided resources that enabled the country to raise its public primary school enrollment from 321,000 in 1958, to 942,000 in 1970. Since then education policy of expansion has remained the same. Children whose age is between 6 and 14 receive compulsory education. Those aged 6 to 11 are the ones who study compulsory primary education requirements. In 1994, 83 percent attended school, the literacy rate was 53 percent, and enrollment at public primary schools was 13,000. The number of private primary schools is not clear. Primary school takes 12 years to complete because of the repetition policy. Though girls' access to educational opportunity is equal to that of boys, more emphasis is placed on males to succeed. This is indicative of the patriarchal and cultural preferences of the indigenous society.

SECONDARY EDUCATION

The curriculum, structures, academic standards, and other values of the secondary school enterprise are modeled on the French high school education system. At independence, the colonial education system was inherited by the nation, which has taken significant strides to adapt the originally adopted academic menu. In 1972, there were 100,000 students in more than 300 secondary schools. In 1998 there were about 500,000 students in 2,000 secondary schools.

Secondary education takes seven years to complete. There are two levels of secondary school education system. The first level is the junior secondary level, which takes four years to complete. The students at this level are 12 to 15 years old. Those who do senior secondary level for three years are between 16 and 18 years old. At the end of their junior level, the students get their certificate. Alternatively, the senior level graduates receive the baccalauréat which is a high school diploma. Junior level graduates who go for vocational training receive professional certificate called college professionelle, while senior level secondary graduates who are admitted to the technical college (college technique) receive a technical diploma called baccalauréat technique.

The junior secondary school curriculum consists of mathematics, natural science, Malagasy language, civics and religion, some French and English, history, geography and arts, and physical education. The course offerings, in terms academic load per week, vary from subject to subject in terms of their hierarchy in Madagascar's socioeconomic and political-psychological dynamics. The same cultural dynamic influences the structure and delivery mode of the senior secondary curriculum. The curriculum includes advanced mathematics, natural science, introduction to technology, French, malagache, history, geography, civics, religion, and physical education.

In both the primary and secondary schools, the ratio of students to teachers varies from city to city and from province to province. In addition, this ratio is also further influenced by economic and cultural ingredients within specific cities, counties, districts, and locations. In other words, parental and cultural attitudes toward school in the various administrative and politically established local units reinforce or discourage school attendance and thereby contributing to specific ratios in full-time equivalent measures. For instance parental and cultural attitudes regarding the education of males as opposed to that of females tend to perpetuate patriarchal elements of sexist traditionalism that favor female domesticity and reproduction rather than empowerment and social mobility.

HIGHER EDUCATION

Because Madagascar was a French colony, its post-colonial intellectual elite possessed academic credentials from a variety of French schools as well as the leading universities of Paris, Toulon, Marseilles, Montpellier, Pointers, and La Reunion. Similarly, after independence, these universities became the models for the six Malagasy universities at Antananarivo, Antsiranana, Fianaarantsoa, Toamasina, Toliara, and Mahajanga. These postsecondary institutions evolved from the Institute for Advanced Studies, which was founded in 1955. The Institute was conceived to be the original University of Madagascar in Antananarivo in 1961. There were five other provincial universities whose academic hearts were located at Antananarivo. Officially those five extensions became fully fledged academic institutions, complete with professional faculties, in 1988.

Philosophically, the University of Madagascar's reason for existence is rooted in the dynamic and synergistic fusion of the European, Continental (African), and Malagasy cultural and scientific heritage. The University's goals for rationalizing the heritage include but are not limited to:

1. Maintaining adherence and loyalty to global academic standards.
2. Ensuring the unification of the African continent.
3. Using research, teaching, and scientific knowledge to dispel misconceptions about Africa, its culture, people, and heritage.
4. Using a variety of resources for training people to develop skills that are essential for meeting the development needs of the nation.
5. Training well-rounded human beings for nation building.
6. Progressively evolving an excellent higher education system that can become a model for evaluation.
7. Using science and technology for the advancement of human learning and solution of complex social, economic, and cultural difficulties.

With the exception of number seven above, the philosophical goals were developed by the 1962 "Tananarive Conference on Higher Education in Africa." The conference was organized by the government of the Republic of Malagasy, representatives from other African countries, and the United Nations Economic Commission of Africa (UNECA). The resolutions of Tananarive Conference were based on the 1961 planning recommendations of the UNESCO initiated Addis-Ababa Conference of African heads of state and ministers. The purpose of the 1962 Tananarive Conference was threefold: first, the conference was charged with the responsibility of identifying solutions to problems of choice and adaptation of the higher education curriculum. Second, the conference needed to identify probable solutions to the problems endemic in the administration, organization, structure, and financing of the higher education enterprise and to study the impact of those solutions on the educational-related ministries of economic planning, education, labor, and agriculture. Third, the conference needed to identify the most efficient ways of providing data to the specialized agencies concerned with international cooperation, development, and assistance of African institutions of higher learning. Eventually, the conference succeeded in constructing a scientific and cultural planning model of higher education that was loaded with Euro-American and African higher education concepts. The education model was adapted by all African ministries of education, including that of Madagascar.

At present, the university system of Madagascar has several faculties of which law, economics, sciences, letters, and human sciences are dominant. The university system has many schools that specialize in public administration, management, medicine, social welfare, public works, and agronomy. Schools are further subdivided into departments. For instance, at the University of Fianarantsoa, there are more than 20 departments, including architecture and urbanism, building public works, electronic engineering, geology, hydraulics, meteorology, mines, materials, metallurgic sciences, telecommunications, optical physics, applied physics, energetics, industrial relations, and international relations. The university has 200 faculty members, of whom 120 are permanent while the rest are irregulars who work in technical ministries and professional industries.

French is the language used in all universities. Students take eight to ten years to complete the first degree. The baccalaureate is required for admission to the university. In African countries, it takes five years rather than the eight to ten years it takes in Madagascar. In 1994, there were 40,000 students enrolled in the country's university system. It is believed that at the time, the actual institutional capacity was 26,000 rather than the 40,000. This was considered overcrowding, for which the system has been severely criticized. Of those who are admitted, only 10 percent matriculate. In other words, turnover, failures, and repetitions are increasingly and economically massive and unwarranted. They are unwarranted because they reflect faulty investment and poor economic planning, which negatively impacts the poor nation as a whole. Though reform measures are being implemented, they have not been substantially effective.

The university system offers diplomas, certificates, and degrees of all kinds. Though most students complete the first degree, a few study the graduate and doctoral programs that are necessary for elite professional careers in the nation's institutions and organizations.

NONFORMAL EDUCATION

In southern Africa, nonformal education is adult education (Toweet 1978) and lifelong learning that is essential for the promotion of personal, group, community, and national self-reliance. Throughout the last few hundred years, and more importantly, during the last 40 years, rationalization of nonformal education was carried out in a marginal and loosely organized way by individual racial group communities. These communities used adult education concepts, methods, and strategies to solve their social, economic and political problems. Although non-formal education is not growth-oriented, selective, and competitive, it is humanistic education (Brown 1978) because it is local, instrumental, and expressive in nature (Sagini 2000).

Forty years ago, Madagascar became a multicultural and democratic republic. The government established a new constitution and a variety of ministries, including the ministry of education, which integrated all forms of education throughout the nation. In addition, all forms of development including agriculture, mines, housing and the urban sector, health, and education were integrated with the entire national economic planning strategy. Under the colonial regime, nonformal education was marginalized, racially organized, and largely inconsequential. However, nonformal education, like preschool, elementary, secondary, and higher education, is currently a component of the national education policy that is managed and administered by the coordinating machinery under the Ministry of Education. Within South Africa and perhaps elsewhere in the African continent, nonformal education is education for adults who are nontraditional learners and students who are interested in self-actualization, regardless of when they achieve it. Adult education philosophy has evolved from cultural and nationalistic beliefs concerning "human dignity, equality and respect" (Mbekile 1978). It is an education policy that is used for the elimination of "poverty, disease and ignorance." One of the main goals of nonformal education is to enhance equality by working to eliminate the effects of educational social stratification, lessen the exploitation of the uneducated masses by the elite, and distribute educational services and resources more equitably. Methodologically, approaches to nonformal education are a product of a government's nationalistic goals as a development strategy that focuses on the nation's geographic features, climatic conditions, occupational demography, and cultural and regional differences. These nonformal education measures are directed towards both the urban and rural sectors of society. Notwithstanding the fact that the success of nonformal education will depend on public commitment and psychological and practical participation, the most important challenges to effective nonformal education are a lack of massive financial investment, a lack of enough qualified personnel to implement it, and the view that it is not essential and therefore inconsequential. Madagascar has yet to succeed in implementing a long-distance learning strategy. Though attempts are being made to strengthen it, lack of resources made it difficult to implement.

TEACHING PROFESSION

Teacher education is postsecondary professional education that senior level high school graduates train for and matriculate in. There are seven teacher training colleges in Madagascar that train teachers for primary schools. Secondary school teachers have degrees from the island's six provincial universities. Several other colleges that train people in agriculture, business and industry, and a variety of vocational activities are scattered all over the island.

Graduate students who prepare to be teachers in secondary schools attend training colleges to complete master of arts degrees. Their curriculum places an emphasis on reflection, observation, self-evaluation, experiential learning, and skill improvement.

SUMMARY

Madagascar's modern education system is deeply rooted in its imperial past. Its scientific foundation originated in the French educational and colonial administrative philosophy. Its elitist character not only serves as a source of society's social stratification—it also prepares the legislative, professional, and corporate elite for the leadership of society's organizations and institutions. Other graduates of the education system work in the rural and vocational sectors. Most elementary school graduates work in the rural sector, while high school graduates enter technical and vocational institutions. A few who are more ambitious, competitive, and fluent in French graduate from colleges and universities and take up careers in teaching, law, business, medicine, and other professions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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——. Organizational Behavior: The Challenges of the New Millenium. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc., 2001.

Toweet, Taitta. "Opening Address" Implementation of UNESCO: Recommendations on the Development of Adult Education. (February-March 1978): 7-11.

—Meshack M. Sagini