DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)

English naturalist

Charles Robert Darwin is credited with popularizing the concept of organic evolution by means of natural selection. Though Darwin was not the first naturalist to propose a model of biological evolution, his introduction of the mechanism of the "survival of the fittest," and discussion of the evolution of humans, marked a revolution in both science and natural philosophy.

Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England and showed an early interest in the natural sciences, especially geology. His father, Robert Darwin, a wealthy physician, encouraged Charles to pursue studies in medicine at the University of Edinburg. Darwin soon tired of the subject, and his father sent him to Cambridge to prepare for a career in the clergy. At Cambridge, Darwin rekindled his passion for the natural sciences, often devoting more time to socializing with Cambridge scientists than to his clerical studies. With guidance from his cousin, entomologist William Darwin Fox (1805–1880), Darwin became increasingly involved in the growing circle of natural scientists at Cambridge. ox introduced Darwin to clergyman and biologist John Stevens Henslow (1796–1861). Henslow became Darwin's tutor in mathematics and theology, as well as his mentor in his personal studies of botany, geology, and zoology. Henslow profoundly influenced Darwin, and it was he who encouraged Darwin to delay seeking an appointment in the Church of England in favor of joining an expedition team and venturing overseas. After graduation, Darwin agreed to an unpaid position as naturalist aboard the H.M.S. Beagle. The expedition team was initially chartered for a three year voyage and survey of South America's Pacific coastline, but the ship pursued other ventures after their work was complete and Darwin remained part of H.M.S. Beagle's crew for five years.

Darwin used his years aboard the Beagle to further his study of the natural sciences. In South America, Darwin became fascinated with geology. He paid close attention to changes in the land brought about by earthquakes and volcanoes. His observations led him to reject catastrophism (a theory that land forms are the result of single, catastrophic events), and instead espoused the geological theories of gradual development proposed by English geologist Charles Lyell (1797–1875) in his 1830 work, Principles of Geology. Yet, some of his observations in South America did not fit with Lyell's theories. Darwin disagreed with Lyell's assertion that coral reefs grew atop oceanic volcanoes and rises, and concluded that coral reefs built upon themselves. When Darwin returned to England in 1836, he and Lyell became good friends. Lyell welcomed Darwin's new research on coral reefs, and encouraged him to publish other studies from his voyages.

Darwin was elected a fellow of the Geological Society in 1836, and became a member of the Royal Society in 1839. That same year, he published his Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the Various Countries Visited by H.M.S. Beagle. Though his achievements in geology largely prompted his welcoming into Britain's scientific community, his research interests began to diverge from the discipline in the early 1840s. Discussions with other naturalists prompted Darwin's increasing interest in population diversity of fauna, extinct animals, and the presumed fixity of species. Again, he turned to notes of his observations and various specimens he gathered while on his prior expedition. The focus of his new studies was the Galápagos Islands off the Pacific coast of Ecuador. While there, Darwin was struck by the uniqueness of the island's tortoises and birds. Some neighboring islands had animal populations, which were largely similar to that of the continent, while others had seemingly different variety of species. After analyzing finch specimen from the Galápagos, Darwin concluded that species must have some means of transmutation, or ability of a species to alter over time. Darwin thus proposed that as species modified, and as old species disappeared, new varieties could be introduced. Thus, Darwin proposed an evolutionary model of animal populations.

The idea of organic evolution was not novel. French naturalist, Georges Buffon (1707–1788) had theorized that species were prone to development and change. Darwin's own grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, also published research regarding the evolution of species. Although the theoretical concept of evolution was not new, it remained undeveloped prior to Charles Darwin. Just as he had done with Lyell's geological theory, Darwin set about the further the understanding of evolution not merely as a philosophical concept, but as a practical scientific model for explaining the diversity of species and populations. His major contribution to the field was the introduction of a mechanism by which evolution was accomplished. Darwin believed that evolution was the product of an ongoing struggle of species to better adapt to their environment, with those that were best adapted surviving to reproduce and replace less-suited individuals. He called this phenomenon "survival of the fittest," or natural selection. In this way, Darwin believed that traits of maximum adaptiveness were transferred to future generations of the animal population, eventually resulting in new species.

Darwin finished an extensive draft of his theories in 1844, but lacked confidence in his abilities to convince others of the merits of his discoveries. Years later, prompted by rumors that a colleague was about to publish a theory similar to his own, Darwin decided to release his research. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, was published November 1859, and became an instant bestseller.

A common misconception is that On the Origin of Species was the introduction of the concept of human evolution. In fact, a discussion of human antiquity is relatively absent from the book. Darwin did not directly address the relationship between animal and human evolution until he published The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex in 1871. Darwin introduced not only a model for the biological evolution of man, but also attempted to chart the process of man's psychological evolution. He further tried to break down the barriers between man and animals in 1872 with his work The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. By observing facial features and voice sounds, Darwin asserted that man and non-human animals exhibited signs of emotion in similar ways. In the last years of his career, Darwin took the concept of organic evolution to its logical end by applying natural selection and specialization to the plant kingdom.

Darwin's works on evolution met with both debate from the scientific societies, and criticism from some members of the clergy. On the Origin of Species and The Descent of Man were both published at a time of heightened religious evangelicalism in England. Though willing to discuss his theories with colleagues in the sciences, Darwin refrained from participating in public debates concerning his research. In the last decade of his life, Darwin was disturbed about the application of his evolutionary models to social theory. By most accounts, he considered the emerging concept of the social and cultural evolution of men and civilizations, which later became known as Social Darwinism, to be a grievous misinterpretation of his works. Regardless of his opposition, he remained publicly taciturn about the impact his scientific theories on theology, scientific methodology, and social theory. Closely guarding his privacy, Darwin retired to his estate in Down. He died at Down House in 1882. Though his wishes were to receive an informal burial, Parliament immediately ordered a state burial for the famous naturalist at Westminster Abby. By the time of his death, the scientific community had largely accepted the arguments favoring his theories of evolution. Although the later discoveries in genetics and molecular biology radically reinterpreted Darwin's evolutionary mechanisms, evolutionary theory is the key and unifying theory in all biological science.